i 


i 

I 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


VOLUME  I 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/handwovencarpets01kend 


Persian  carpet,  I5th-i6th  century. 

(See  pages  19,  103.) 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 


.'i'ifrtns?  rUoi-rijji  .Jsq-ss 

(.joi  ,Qi  c'jgsq  9fi>8) 
jji-xobrT 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 
ORIENTAL  & EUROPEAN 
BY  A.  F.  KENDRICK 

KEEPER  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  TEXTILES 
AT  THE  VICTORIA  AND  ALBERT  MUSEUM 

AND  C.  E.  C.  TATTERSALL 

WITH  205  PLATES,  OF  WHICH  19  ARE  IN  COLOUR 


VOLUME  I TEXT 


NEW  YORK: 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

1922 


kIK 

Kr-: 

V.  i 

text 


PRINTED  AND  MADE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


THIS  EDITION  IS  LIMITED  TO  1000  NUMBERED 
SETS,  OF  WHICH  THIS  IS  SET.^fk5 


V 


PREFACE 

A brief  explanation  of  the  nature  of  the  link  between  this  volume 
and  Neugebauer  and  Orendi's  excellent  Handbuch  der  Orientalischen 
Teppichkunde,  published  in  1909^  is  due  to  the  reader*  By  arrangement 
with  Messrs*  Hiersemann  of  Leipzig  many  of  the  illustrations  in  that  volume 
have  been  made  use  of^  and  these  have  been  supplemented  by  a large 
number  of  new  ones  in  colour  and  half-tone*  The  scope  of  that  handbook 
did  not  render  the  text  easily  adaptable  as  a basis  for  the  text  of  the  present 
volume*  The  necessary  amplification  and  revision  would  have  entirely 
destroyed  its  character,  and  to  undertake  the  task  would  have  hindered 
rather  than  furthered  the  end  in  view*  These  considerations  explain 
why  the  text  of  the  present  volume  is  entirely  new*  Responsibility 
must  in  no  case  be  laid,  therefore,  at  the  door  of  the  earlier  writers,  except 
in  regard  to  a few  statements,  of  no  vital  import,  which  could  have  only 
been  verified  by  reference  to  the  original  carpets  illustrated  but  not  now 
accessible*  The  great  value  of  Neugebauer  and  Orendi^s  work  lay  in 
the  varied  and  admirable  series  of  illustrations  of  carpets  woven  within 
the  last  hundred  years  and  in  the  descriptive  notes  appended*  When 
it  first  appeared,  there  was  no  other  book  of  so  modest  compass  and  price 
which  aimed  at  classifying  the  bewildering  variety  of  types  of  Oriental 
carpet  obtainable  by  those  who  had  the  money  to  buy,  and  no  other  book 
has  since  taken  its  place* 

The  literature  on  the  subject  of  the  older  carpets  was  already  fairly 
voluminous*  Of  all  such  works,  that  published  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Austrian  Government  after  the  great  exhibition  of  carpets  at  Vienna 
in  1891  remains  the  chief*  The  truly  magnificent  series  of  coloured 
illustrations  to  that  work  places  it  beyond  all  chance  of  rivalry  for  many 
years  to  come*  But  they  also  render  it  unobtainable,  except  occasionally 
at  a price  which  would  represent  more  than  a year’s  income  of  many  a 
serious  student*  The  text  was  naturally  subject  to  the  limitations  of  the 
time*  The  day  had  not  then  come  when  a sound  historical  survey, 
covering  as  wide  a range  as  the  exhibition  itself,  could  be  written* 

A supplementary  volume,  with  descriptive  text  by  Dr*  Friedrich 
Sarre,  was  published  in  1907* 

Next  followed  Dr*  F*  R*  Martin’s  book.  Oriental  Carpets  Made  Before 

V 


PREFACE 


1800.  This  eminent  Swedish  traveller  and  writer  took  a fearless  and 
original  line,  and  although  the  lapse  of  time  has  not  since  tended  to 
confirm  some  of  his  theories,  a great  deal  was  added  to  the  common  stock 
of  knowledge.  Martin's  work  was  published  in  1908. 

Two  years  later  the  exhibition  of  Muhammadan  art  was  held  at 
Munich.  A remarkable  collection  of  carpets  was  brought  together  on 
that  occasion,  and  they  received  due  attention  in  the  fine  publication, 
Meisterwerke  Muhammedanischer  Kunstf  produced  at  the  close  of  the 
exhibition  as  a record  of  the  principal  works  of  art  shown. 

All  the  books  so  far  mentioned  are  costly  and  scarce.  The  frequent 
references  made  to  them  in  the  following  pages  are  called  for  by  the 
impossibility  of  adequately  illustrating,  especially  in  colours,  a subject 
of  so  wide  a range  in  any  volume  of  moderate  si2;e  and  cost.  The  books 
are  accessible  in  our  national  libraries,  and  the  student  of  the  subject 
cannot  afford  to  miss  any  available  assistance  in  consulting  them. 

The  number  of  smaller  and  less  ambitious  volumes  on  the  subject 
of  carpets  is  gradually  growing.  Few  of  them  claim  to  embody  much 
original  research,  although  in  their  discursive  way  they  are  not  without 
value,  and  they  do  a useful  service  in  contributing  to  the  available  stock 
of  illustrations.  They  have  a place  in  the  list  of  useful  works  at  the 
end  of  this  volume. 

Dr.  W.  von  Bode's  book,  Vorderasiatische  Kniipfteppiche,  published 
in  1902,  should  be  particularly  mentioned,  as  being,  within  the  modest 
limits  set  by  its  author,  a scholarly  and  indispensable  book. 

Work  still  remains  to  be  done  in  clearing  up  obscure  points, 
especially,  though  not  entirely,  in  regard  to  the  early  history  of  the 
subject. 

A number  of  the  carpets  illustrated  in  this  volume  are  already  well 
known  to  students,  but  they  are  such  as  cannot  be  ignored  without 
disadvantage  in  a volume  dealing,  however  briefly,  with  the  subject  as 
a whole. 

The  Council  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts  have  kindly  accorded 
permission  to  adapt  a paper  on  English  carpets  read  before  them  and 
published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  (Vol.  LXVII,  1919^  p»  136)  for 
the  purposes  of  this  work. 

My  collaborator  and  colleague,  Mr.  Tattersall,  is  responsible  for  the 
classification  of  the  modern  carpets  and  the  technical  notes  throughout. 
Such  value  as  the  book  may  have  is  largely  due  to  him. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  the  following  for  their  courtesy  in  allowing 

vi 


PREFACE 


the  reproduction  of  carpets  in  their  possession  : — The  Duke  of  Buccleuch, 
The  Duke  of  Northumberland,  Lady  Cunliffe,  The  Hon,  Lady  Hulse, 
Lord  Verulam,  The  Hon,  H,  McLaren,  M,P,,  The  Earl  of  Ilchester, 
The  Mobilier  National  (Paris),  The  Louvre,  The  Gobelins  Museum 
(Paris),  The  Museum  of  Decorative  Arts  (Paris),  The  Vienna  Museums, 
The  Berlin  Museums,  The  Leip2;ig  Museum,  The  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  (London),  Mr,  George  Mounsey,  Mr,  Lionel  Harris,  The 
Girdlers^  Company,  Dr,  W,  von  Bode,  Dr,  Friedrich  Sarre ; and  to 
M,  Albert  Levy,  of  the  Librairie  Centrale  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris,  for 
permission  to  reproduce  Plate  26  from  his  Exposition  des  Arts  Musulmans, 
It  is  an  agreeable  task  to  record  my  indebtedness  to  Mr,  Victor 
Gollancz  for  dispositions  which  have  lightened  the  labour  and  added 
to  the  pleasure  of  writing  the  following  pages, 

A,  F,  Kendrick, 

September  t 1922* 


Vll 


CONTENTS 


VOLUME  L—TEXT 

Page 

PREFACE  ..............  V 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  I . . . . . . . . xi 

PART  I.— HISTORICAL 

I INTRODUCTORY  .............  3 

II  PERSIA  ...............  8 

III  INDIA  37 

IV  TURKEY  ...............  43 

V THE  CAUCASUS  .............  58 

VI  EASTERN  ASIA— 

(a)  TURCOMAN  TRIBES  61 

(&)  CHINA  AND  CHINESE  TURKESTAN  .........  62 

VII  EUROPE— 

(а)  SPAIN 68 

(б)  POLAND  ..............  72 

(c)  FINLAND 72 

(d)  FRANCE 73 

VIII  ENGLAND 75 

PART  II.— TECHNICAL 

I THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS— 

(a)  KNOTTING  AND  WEAVING 87 

(b)  GROUP  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  EARLY  CARPETS  ......  99 

(c)  MATERIALS  .............  114 

(d)  DIMENSIONS  AND  SHAPE  . . . . . . . . . .116 

(e)  COLOUR  AND  DYEING  ...........  118 

II  THE  DESIGN  OF  CARPETS  ...........  123 

III  PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS— 

(a)  PURCHASE  133 

(b)  PRICES  ..............  142 

(c)  TREATMENT  145 


IX 


CONTENTS 


IV  CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET— GROUPING  AND  IDENTIFICATION—  Page 

(а)  TURKISH  149 

(б)  CAUCASIAN i6i 

(c)  PERSIAN  ..............  172 

(d)  CENTRAL  ASIATIC 186 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 193 

INDEX 1 95 

VOLUME  II —PLATES 

LIST  OF  PLATES v 

PLATES xiii 

MAPS  ............  At  end  of  volume 


X 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


VOLUME  I 

Plate  I.  PERSIAN  CARPET,  isth-i6th  CENTURY Frontispiece 

Plate  89.  ENGLISH  CARPET,  DATED  1614  .....  Frontispiece  to  Part  I 

Plate  53.  GHIORDES  PRAYER-CARPET,  LATE  17th  CENTURY  . Frontispiece  to  Part  II 

DIAGRAMS  OF  KNOTTING  AND  WEAVING,  ETC.— 

Fig.  Page 

A.  DIAGRAM  OF  LOOM,  ILLUSTRATING  THE  SEPARATION  OF  WARP-THREADS 

FOR  INSERTION  OF  WEFT-THREAD 90 

B.  DIAGRAM  OF  LOOM  ILLUSTRATING  SEPARATION  OF  WARP-THREADS  FOR 

PASSAGE  OF  WEFT-THREAD  IN  REVERSE  DIRECTION  . 91 

C.  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  KILIM  WEAVING  92 

D.  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  SOUMAK  WEAVING 93 

E.  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  THE  GHIORDES  KNOT 94 

F.  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  THE  RIGHT-HAND  SEHNA  KNOT  . 94 

G.  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  THE  LEFT-HAND  SEHNA  KNOT  . . . . 95 

H.  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  THE  SEHNA  KNOT  WITH  THE  WARP  ON  TWO 

LEVELS  . 95 

I.  DIAGRAM  OF  KNOT  FOUND  ALMOST  EXCLUSIVELY  IN  EARLY  SPANISH 

CARPETS  . 96 

J.  PLAN  ILLUSTRATING  THE  CONVENTIONAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  CARPETS  IN 

A PERSIAN  ROOM 117 


XI 


PART  I 
HISTORICAL 


T ',,1  ^r>v' 


plAte  89. 


English  carpet,  dated  1614.  (See  pages 
79.  II4-) 

The  lion.  ImUu  llulse. 


Chapter  I 


INTRODUCTORY 

The  pile-carpet,  though  long  ago  naturali2;ed  in  Europe,  is  an  alien 
in  the  Western  world*  Its  origin,  in  the  East,  is  the  outcome  of  conditions 
very  different  from  those  which  control  its  use  in  Europe,  and  if  pile- 
carpets  are  now  made  to  serve  similar  purposes  in  their  native  home, 
the  reason  must  be  sought  in  the  spread  of  western  habits  of  life*  With 
us  carpets  serve  as  an  agreeable  background  for  chairs  and  tables ; they 
help  to  cure  draughts  and  give  the  room  a cheerful  tone ; they  soften 
the  impact  of  the  shoe  on  the  floor,  and  deaden  noise*  Their  use  is 
warranted  by  these  services,  which  the  pile-carpet  renders  better  than 
any  other  floor-covering ; but  they  are  not  indispensable*  The  mind 
must  be  disencumbered  of  such  associations  before  the  genesis  of  this 
toilsome  and  ingenious  type  of  weaving  can  be  made  clear*  To  produce 
a pattern  by  interlacing  continuous  threads  of  different  colours  is  natural 
enough,  and  there  is  general  agreement  that  the  simple  process  of  weaving 
is  to  be  reckoned  among  the  earliest  artistic  efforts  of  prehistoric  mankind* 
But  to  set  the  threads  in  a vast  number  of  short  lengths  up  on  end,  and 
to  pack  them  so  tight  together  that  they  keep  that  position,  entails  so 
much  toil,  and  uses  up  so  much  material,  that  the  contrivance  can  only 
be  regarded  as  a response  to  conditions  not  common  to  all  men*  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  a wandering  shepherd -life,  which  involved  the 
need  and  at  the  same  time  provided  the  means  of  supplying  it,  gives 
the  right  explanation*  We  think  of  some  nomad  tribe  of  shepherds, 
following  their  flocks  from  one  pasture  to  another,  with  no  roof  or  floor 
but  such  as  they  could  carry  with  them  from  place  to  place*  They  needed 
a tent  over  their  heads,  and  at  times  they  needed  even  more  a dry  and 
warm  covering  for  the  ground  of  their  temporary  abode* 

The  wool  of  the  flocks — ^whether  sheep  or  goats — or  even  of  the 
camel  and  yak — offered  an  ideal  material  for  weaving  into  a compact  and 
durable  texture*  The  invention  did  not  merely  provide  an  agreeable 
addition  to  the  household  effects  ; it  met  an  elementary  need  and  became 
indispensable* 

From  these  nomad  surroundings  the  carpet  found  its  way  into  the 

3 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


dwellings  of  agricultural  neighbours^  and  its  adoption  by  all  classes  of 
people  came  about  in  due  course. 

In  the  West,  it  is  now  completely  domesticated,  and  consequently 
we  find  it  hard  to  realize  that  the  pile-carpet  was  practically  unknown 
among  us  before  the  fourteenth  century,  very  rarely  seen  before  the 
fifteenth,  and  not  in  general  use  before  the  eighteenth.  The  date  of 
its  advent  may  be  approximately  traced.  Its  strange  patterns  and  bright 
colours  excited  wonder  and  interest,  and  painters  everywhere  made  use 
of  its  decorative  qualities.^  Centuries  were  yet  to  pass  before  it 
superseded  the  layer  of  rushes  or  the  plaited  rush  matting  in  general 
use,  and  still  common  in  great  houses  in  England  as  late  as  the  days  of 
the  Stuarts. 

As  the  Oriental  carpet  became  known  and  used  over  a wide  area,  the 
obvious  simplicity  of  the  knotting  process  caused  attempts  to  be  made 
here  and  there  to  meet  demands  by  local  production,  and  at  last  in  this 
way  a craft  evolved  by  nomad  shepherds  in  the  heart  of  Asia  spread 
thence  over  the  civilized  world.  The  machine-made  **  Axminster  of 
modern  times,  with  a daily  output  amounting  to  thousands  of  square 
yards  in  Great  Britain  alone,  is  a direct  successor  in  one  line  of  descent. 

It  is  only  in  general  terms  that  the  origin  of  carpet-knotting  can 
be  discussed.  The  clue  to  the  actual  locality,  and  even  to  the  approximate 
date,  of  the  invention  is  lost  beyond  prospect  of  recovery.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  pile-carpets  were  made  as  early  as  five  thousand  years 
before  Christ.^ 

Carpets  of  some  sort  must  have  been  used  in  very  primitive  times. 
Homer  refers  to  them  by  a name  which  they  still  retain  over  a large  part 
of  Europe  ; but  the  unchanged  name  must  not  be  taken  to  signify  that 
the  nature  of  the  fabric  to  which  it  is  applied  has  not  changed.  While 
it  is  just  possible  that  pile-carpets  were  known  to  the  Asiatic  Greeks 
of  Homeric  days,  it  would  be  rash  to  base  any  argument  on  such  an 
assumption. 

The  designs  most  favoured  by  the  ancient  Greeks  for  the  textile 
ornamentation  of  their  houses  were  hunting  scenes  and  subjects  from 
mythology  and  history.  The  carpet-kiiotting  method  would  be  tedious 
and  cumbersome  for  such  representations.  It  is  true  that  such  subjects 

^ Dante  achieves  an  effect  no  less  vivid  by  similar  means.  In  describing  the  bright 
markings  on  the  back  of  the  monster  Geryon  he  says,  “ Never  did  Tartars  or  Turks  make 
cloth  with  more  colours  in  ground  or  pattern  ” {Inf.  xvii). 

2 The  late  Sir  G.  Birdwood,  in  Oriental  Carpets,  Vienna,  1892. 

4 


INTRODUCTORY 


are  to  be  found  in  the  days  of  the  highest  development  of  the  industry 
in  Persia,  but  they  tax  the  utmost  skill  of  the  carpet-knotter,  and  they 
would  not  have  been  deliberately  chosen  under  the  primitive  conditions  of 
Homeric  life.  As  records  of  the  Mesopotamian  civili2;ations  we  have  the 
marble  slabs  from  Nineveh.  Those  showing  floor-coverings  have  patterns 
of  lotus-flowers,  rosettes  and  diapers.  Nothing  is  left  to  show  how  they 
were  made,  but  the  tapestry  method  is  more  likely  to  have  been  used 
than  any  other.^ 

The  skins  of  beasts,  or  some  kind  of  pileless  woven  stuff,  would 
serve  in  a primitive  community  as  a floor-covering  for  special  occasions, 
and  those  who  could  not  come  by  such  luxuries,  or  whose  habits  of  life 
did  not  admit  of  their  use,  found  a sprinkling  of  rushes  or  leaves  a passable 
substitute. 

It  is  indubitable,  though  surprising,  that  somehow  the  Oriental 
method  of  pile-knotting  in  wool  became  known  in  Europe  by  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era.  A happy  chance  has  preserved  to  the 
present  day  some  portions  of  a panel  made  then  at  Quedlinburg,  in  the 
Har^-Mountain  region,  by  this  method,  and  now  preserved  in  the 
Schlosskirche  there.  This  work,  which  measured  about  24  ft.  high  by 
20  ft.  wide,  represents  rows  of  scenes  illustrating  Martianus  Cappella's 
**  Marriage  of  Mercury  and  Philology.''  It  is  obvious  that  it  was  not 
intended  to  be  spread  on  the  floor,  although  it  was  found  in  use  on  the 
floor  of  the  Abbess'  Stall  in  the  church  early  in  the  last  century.  The 
nuns  by  whom  the  work  was  done  must  have  had  access  to  a piece  of 
carpet-knotting,  probably  without  realizing  that  it  was  made  for  a floor- 
covering. The  method  of  knotting  is  that  used  in  Turkey  carpets,  but 
the  need  of  fine  lines  for  the  figures  was  met  by  devising  a single-warp 
knot,  unknown  in  the  East,  for  those  parts. ^ 

The  possibility  that  the  nuns  of  Quedlinburg  made  an  independent 
discovery  of  this  knotting  process  is  so  very  slight  as  to  be  negligible. 
The  hanging  is  known  to  have  been  made  in  the  time  of  the  Abbess  Agnes 
(1186-1203)  and  it  affords  a unique  piece  of  evidence  of  the  actual 
importation  of  pile-carpets  into  Europe  before  the  end  of  the  twelfth 

^ See  A.  H.  Layard,  Second  Series  of  The  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  London,  1853, 
Plate  56. 

2 J.  Lessing  and  M.  Creutz,  W andteppiche  und  Decicen  des  Mittelalters  in  Deutschland, 
Berlin,  Pis.  1-7.  The  process  continued  to  be  used  for  wall-hangings  in  Germany  until 
the  sixteenth  century,  although  for  such  a purpose  it  is  wasteful  both  of  time  and  material. 
Its  use  for  small  details  to  relieve  tapestry-work,  as  seen  sometimes  in  mediaeval  German 
hangings,  is  effective. 


5 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


century*  There  is  nothing  else  to  show  that  they  were  brought  in  earlier 
than  the  fifteenth  century,  except  representations  in  paintings ; and 
even  those  are  not  conclusive*  Carpets  seen  in  pictures  of  the  fourteenth 
century  might  equally  well  have  been  woven  by  the  more  primitive 
tapestry  process*  A strange  obscurity  hangs  over  the  origins  of  carpet- 
knotting  everywhere* 

In  considering  the  traces  left  in  the  East  itself  we  are  much  in  the 
dark*  There  are  no  pile-carpets  existing  which  are  demonstrably  earlier 
than  the  Quedlinburg  hanging,  except  the  fragments  lately  found  in  the 
desert  sites  of  Central  Asia*  Those  regions  must  be  very  much  nearer 
the  original  home  of  carpet-knotting  than  Quedlinburg,  and  anything 
of  the  kind  discovered  there  has  a peculiar  interest*  Nothing  but  small 
fragments  have  been  found  up  to  the  present*  Von  le  Coq's  expedition 
brought  to  light  at  Qyzil  a red  piece  with  portion  of  a pattern  in  yellow 
outlined  in  brownish  black,  but  there  is  not  enough  to  reveal  the  nature 
of  the  pattern*^  Sir  Aurel  Stein's  excavations  afford  no  better  clue*^ 
These  fragments  are  obviously  worthy  of  the  closest  examination,  as 
presumably  they  were  all  made  well  within  the  limits  of  the  first 
millennium  ; their  significance  cannot  properly  be  measured  until  further 
investigation  and  research  are  made  possible*  Leaving  them  out  of 
account,  the  oldest  existing  Oriental  carpets  appear  to  be  those  in  the 
mosque  of  Ala-ed-Din  at  Konia,  first  brought  to  notice  by  Dr*  F*  R* 
Martin,^  and  attributed  by  that  eminent  authority  to  the  early  years  of 
the  thirteenth  century*  Towards  the  end  of  that  century,  the  Venetian 
traveller,  Marco  Polo,  wrote  that  the  finest  and  handsomest  carpets 
in  the  world  " were  made  in  Turkomania  (i.e*  Asia  Minor  ^)* 

The  conditions  under  which  pile-carpets  may  have  been  first  devised 
have  already  been  touched  upon*  Where  the  invention  took  place  is  still 
an  open  question*  Sir  George  Birdwood  ^ is  inclined  to  favour  Egypt  as 
the  home  of  a very  early  civilisation*  But  it  is  a real  question  whether 
civilisation  had  much  to  do  with  the  discovery*  Moreover,  there  are 
serious  objections  to  the  claim  of  Egypt*  The  soil  and  climate  of  the 
country  render  carpets  a luxury  rather  than  a necessity  ; wool,  the  natural 

^ F.  Sarre  and  T.  Falkenberg  in  Berliner  Museen,  Berichte,  XLII,  1921,  p.  no. 

2 Sir  M.  A.  Stein,  Desert  Cathay,  London,  1912,  Fig.  116,  4 ; Serindia,  1922,  Vol.  IV, 

PI.  37. 

^ Oriental  Carpets,  1908,  PI.  30.  See  post,  p.  45. 

^ The  Booh  of  Ser  Marco  Polo,  translated  and  edited  by  Colonel  Sir  Henry  Yule,  3rd 
ed.,  London,  1903,  Vol.  I,  p.  43. 

^ Vienna,  0.(7.,  1892. 


6 


INTRODUCTORY 


material  for  making  them,  was  not  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians ; and 
the  wealth  of  textile  material  hitherto  turned  up  by  excavators  in  the 
burying-grounds,  varied  as  it  is,  includes  no  example  of  carpet-knotting. 
Arguments  of  a similar  nature  apply  to  India,  China  has  no  better  case. 
The  native  textile  materials  of  these  three  countries  are,  respectively, 
linen,  cotton,  and  silk.  We  shall  do  better  to  look  for  the  ideal  home 
of  woollen  pile-carpets  in  uplands  where  the  cold  is  sharp  at  times,  where 
a nomad  people  require  a portable  floor  and  keep  flocks  for  the  provision 
of  the  wool.  On  these  grounds,  the  great  plateau  of  Persia,  the  highlands 
of  Anatolia  or  the  plains  of  Central  Asia  have  the  best  claim.  Carpet- 
weaving reached  its  highest  limits  of  attainment,  and  is  known  to  have 
been  practised  from  early  times,  both  in  Persia  and  Anatolia,  The  task 
of  balancing  the  claims  of  these  two  regions  to  priority  might  be  endlessly 
pursued  without  getting  any  nearer  to  a solution.  There  is  more  hope 
of  further  developments  in  regard  to  Central  Asia,  where  so  much  research 
is  going  on,  and  the  near  future  may  throw  a flood  of  light  on  this  question, 
as  well  as  on  others  equally  obscure. 


7 


Chapter  II 


PERSIA 

In  any  systematic  record  of  pile-carpet  weaving  it  is  advisable  to 
begin  with  Persia.  To  do  so  is  convenient^  and  almost  inevitable.  It 
is  true  that  the  Persian  carpets  were  not  the  first  to  become  known  in 
Europe.  All  available  evidence  seems  to  show  that  they  were  not  known 
at  all  for  some  centuries  after  pile- carpets  were  first  brought  in  from 
the  East.  Of  all  the  carpets  represented  in  European  pictures  of  the 
fourteenth,  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  not  a single  one  is  Persian. 
The  configuration  of  Persia  and  its  place  on  the  map  were  obstacles  to 
the  transport  of  bulky  wares  which  long  continued  to  be  almost  completely 
effective.  A few  carpets  from  Persia  found  their  way  to  Europe  in  past 
centuries.  Here  and  there  a Persian  carpet  in  a church  or  palace  in 
Italy  may  have  been  imported  straight  from  the  loom,  just  like  the  Anatolian. 
The  carpet  shown  in  Plate  5A  belonged  formerly  to  Signor  Stefano 
Bardini  of  Florence.  Others  also  from  the  same  collection  had  probably 
been  long  in  Italy  ^ ; but  had  there  been  many  of  them  in  that 
country  before  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  they  would  assuredly 
have  been  copied  by  the  painters.  A woollen  carpet  with  inscrip- 
tions and  arabesques  in  silver  was  in  a Spanish  cathedral  until  a 
few  years  ago.^  A very  remarkable  Persian  carpet  from  Mantes  Church 
was  acquired  for  the  Louvre  in  1912,  where  it  is  exhibited  in  the 
large  Oriental  gallery.®  It  has  a pattern  of  Chinese  dragons,  phoenixes 
and  unicorns  **  amid  cypresses  and  fruit  trees,  on  a blue  middle  ground 
and  a red  border.  This  carpet  was  probably  made  in  the  last  years  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  A fragment  of  the  border  of  another  fine  Persian 
carpet  of  about  the  same  date,  with  a pattern  of  interlaced  arabesques, 
formerly  in  the  Cathedral  of  Troyes,  is  now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum.^  A carpet  in  the  Cathedral  of  Cracow  will  be  referred  to  later. 
The  famous  hunting-carpet  in  the  Austrian  imperial  collections  (Plate  10) 

^ See  {e.g.)  Martin,  0.(7.,  Figs.  6i,  109,  127. 

2 Illustrated  in  colours,  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets  (supplement  to  the  great  book  published 
at  Vienna),  PI.  II  ; see  also  Martin,  0.(7.,  Fig.  131. 

® Illustrated  in  colours  in  G.  Migeon,  L’Orient  Musvlman,  Paris,  1922,  PI.  36. 

Illustrated  in  colours,  Martin,  O.O.,  Fig.  108. 

8 


PERSIA 


is  supposed  to  have  belonged  at  one  time  to  the  Czars  of  Russia.  The 
neighbourhood  of  Russia  to  the  north-western  provinces  of  Persia  accounts 
for  the  number  of  fine  Persian  textiles  in  that  country.  Probably  it  was 
in  North-West  Persia  that  these  carpets  which  have  long  been  in  Europe 
were  made.  They  would  have  been  conveyed  to  the  nearest  port  on  the 
Black  Sea^  and  thence  by  water  to  Constantinople  (whither  multitudes 
of  Persian  carpets  have  since  been  carried) ; or  perhaps  in  some  instance 
by  direct  passage  in  trading  ships  of  the  countries  concerned.  The 
carpet  in  the  Salting  Collection  (Plate  14)  with  an  ode  by  the  Persian  poet 
Hafiz  worked  into  the  border  in  silver  thread  is  supposed  to  have  been 
sent  from  the  loom  to  the  Turkish  sultan's  palace  at  Constantinople ; 
from  thence  it  passed  into  Mr.  Salting's  possession  not  many  years  ago. 
The  celebrated  silk  and  gold  carpets  were  exceptional,  as  they  were  borne 
by  special  embassies  from  the  Shah  to  the  European  Courts  (see  p.  31). 

The  British  Muscovy  Company  of  Merchant  Adventurers  found 
their  way  through  Russia  to  Persia  before  the  end  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign,  but  it  was  a troublesome  and  interminable  land  journey  from  Persia 
to  the  White  Sea  or  the  Baltic,  and  in  the  meanwhile  the  harbours  of 
Asia  Minor  afforded  easy  access  to  the  carpet-producing  districts  of 
Anatolia. 

The  consequence  was  that  most  of  the  carpets  imported  were  from 
Anatolia,  and  the  term  Turkey-carpet " bid  fair  to  make  good  its  claim 
to  be  applied  to  all  pile- carpets.^  The  subsequent  fame  of  Persian  carpets 
brought  about  a reaction,  and  to-day  the  appellation  as  often  as  not  is 
inexcusable,  unless  it  be  conceded  that  the  name  of  the  country  whence 
the  best  pile-carpets  have  come  may  be  legitimately  applied  to  any  carpets 
of  the  kind.  How  far  back  the  making  of  pile-carpets  goes  in  Persia  we 
do  not  know,  and  probably  we  never  shall.  The  oldest  existing  carpets 
to  which  dates  can  be  assigned  with  confidence  are  not  Persian ; but  that 
is  probably  due  to  accidental  circumstances.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that 
carpet-knotting  was  either  invented  in  Persia  or  came  in  with  nomad 
tribes  from  the  North  at  an  early  date  in  the  history  of  the  craft.  Whether 
that  happened  two  thousand  years  ago,  two  thousand  five  hundred  years 
ago,  or  even  fifteen  hundred  years  ago  we  cannot  say. 

A description  of  a sumptuous  carpet  of  very  early  date  has  long 


^ The  French  traveller  Jean  Chardin,  who  visited  Persia  in  the  second  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  explains  that  Persian  carpets  were  still  included  in  this  general  term 
in  his  day,  because  they  came  by  way  of  Turkey  before  the  ocean  route  was  explored 
(J.  Chardin,  Voyage  en  Perse). 


9 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


survived  the  carpet  itself^  as  well  as  all  others  of  its  time^  in  the  annals  of 
the  Arabian  writers  who  recorded  the  conquest  of  Persia. 

When  Ctesiphon^  the  Sassanian  capital  near  the  site  of  the  later  city 
of  Baghdad^  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs  in  A.D.  637^  the  carpet  was 
found  in  the  famous  White  Palace. 

The  late  Dr.  v.  Karabacek^  of  the  Vienna  Royal  Library^  extracted 
from  the  Arabian  manuscript  the  following  account  of  the  carpet.^  It 
was  originally  made  for  Chosroes  I (a.d.  531-579)  and  his  successors 
used  it  ever  after  until  the  last  Sassanian  king  Jazdegerd,  but  only  during 
the  stormy  and  rough  winter  seasons  when  it  was  impossible  to  stay  in 
the  garden.  On  these  occasions  the  drinking  feasts  which  usually  took 
place  outside  were  transferred  to  the  carpet^  for  its  pattern  represented 
a garden  in  the  bloom  of  spring.  The  carpet  was  called  The  Winter 
Carpet or  ''  The  Spring  of  Chosroes.''  The  materials  of  this  carpet 
were  notable  and  rich : silk^  gold,  silver,  and  semi-precious  and  precious 
stones.  The  middle  space  of  the  carpet  represented  a pleasure-garden 
planted  with  trees  and  spring  flowers,  and  intersected  by  brooks  and 
pathways.  The  broad  surrounding  border  represented  magnificent 
flower-beds,  and  the  blossoms  were  shown  by  blue,  red,  yellow,  white 
and  green  stones.  The  yellow  colour  of  the  earth  was  represented  in 
the  background  of  the  carpet  with  gold ; the  banks  of  the  streams  were 
rendered  by  stripes,  between  which  stones  clear  as  crystal  made  the 
representation  of  the  water  so  perfect  as  to  deceive  the  eye.  The  pathways 
were  indicated  by  stones  as  large  as  pearls,  stems  and  branches  were 
made  out  of  gold  and  silver,  the  leaves  of  the  trees  and  flowers  as  well 
as  all  the  plants  were  made  out  of  silk,  and  the  fruit  out  of  coloured 
stones. 

Though  it  would  be  expecting  too  much  of  us  to  ask  that  we  should 
accept  this  description  as  a bare  statement  of  facts,  especially  in  view 
of  the  lively  fancies  of  the  Oriental  imagination,  it  would  nevertheless 
be  a mistake  to  treat  the  description  of  this  carpet  as  being  a pure  fable. 
To  judge  from  the  nature  of  the  materials  and  the  size  (it  was  said  to 
be  60  ells  square),  it  cannot  have  been  of  knotted  pile.  Rather  must  it 
be  classed  with  the  elaborate  embroidered  carpets  such  as  have  been 
made  elsewhere  in  the  East  down  to  modern  times.  For  all  that,  account 
should  be  taken  of  it,  since  the  description  of  the  pattern  is  one  that  might 
be  used  with  little  modification  for  carpets  made  in  Persia  more  than  a 
thousand  years  later.  No  such  carpet  is  shown  in  any  of  the  Sassanian 

^ Pers.  Nadelmalerei  Susandschird,  Leipzig,  1881. 


10 


PERSIA 


reliefs  or  silver-ware  now  existing,  but  the  veracity  of  the  story  is  attested 
by  several  existing  carpets  of  far  later  date*^  Some  years  ago  a carpet 
made  a thousand  years  after  the  one  described  by  Karabacek  was  dis- 
covered in  a Styrian  hostelry ; it  has  since  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Dr*  A.  Figdor  in  Vienna.  The  design  obviously  represents  the  flower- 
beds of  a garden  through  which  runs  a maze  of  water-channels  opening 
into  small  lakes,  much  in  the  manner  of  Chosroes'  carpet.  The  water 
is  represented  in  silver  thread,  and  fish  are  seen,  with  water-fowl  swallowing 
them.  There  are  flower-beds,  and  the  streams  are  bordered  by  trees 
with  birds  in  the  branches.  The  carpet  is  knotted  in  wool,  with  gold 
and  silver  threads  for  many  details. 

The  variations,  which  bear  the  character  of  a much  later  epoch, 
cannot  efface  the  impression  that  here  is  a striking  confirmation  of  the 
old  description  ; in  fact,  one  may  almost  suppose  these  later  carpets  to 
be  conscious  imitations.  The  design  is  peculiarly  suitable  for  a carpet, 
and  it  is  one  which  would  naturally  be  evolved  in  a country  where  flower- 
gardens  have  always  been  so  intimately  associated  with  daily  life.  Conse- 
quently there  is  no  occasion  to  assume  that  the  theme  of  Chosroes"  carpet 
was  singular  in  Persia  at  the  time.  A few  more  such  carpets  are  known, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  bridge  the  gap  of  more  than  a thousand  years  between 
the  time  of  the  Sassanian  ruler  Chosroes,  when  the  first  was  made,  and 
that  of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great,  in  whose  reign  Dr.  Figdor's  carpet  was 
most  probably  woven. 

Two  garden- carpets  are  in  the  possession  of  the  Hon.  H.  D.  McLaren. 
One  of  them,  made  perhaps  a little  later  than  the  carpet  just  described, 
is  the  largest  existing  of  its  kind.  It  measures  31  ft.  by  12  ft.  6 in.,  and 
it  seems  to  have  been  even  larger  originally.  The  water  is  rendered  by 
a clever  arrangement  of  zigzag  lines  producing  a shimmering  effect 
when  seen  foreshortened.  This  is  the  usual  convention  where  metal 
threads  are  not  employed.  There  is  a square  pond  in  the  middle  with 
a central  island  and  four  swimming  birds.  A broad  water- channel  runs 
off  from  this  in  four  directions  as  far  as  the  borders  of  the  carpet.  Minor 
channels,  interrupted  at  intervals  by  circular  mounds,  divide  up  the 
rest  of  the  space.  The  water  is  everywhere  edged  with  a strip  of  soil 
represented  in  dark  blue,  upon  which  trees  and  flowering  plants  grow, 
with  birds  in  the  branches.  Square  and  star-shaped  beds  with  blossoming 

^ A Sassanian  silver  dish  in  the  Stroganov  Collection  shows  a king  seated  on  a mat  of 
some  kind  with  a free  floral  pattern  and  a wavy  stem  border  (A.  Riegl,  Ein  Or.  Teppich, 
p.  16). 


II 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


trees  and  plants  fill  the  intervening  spaces » The  narrow  floral  border 
all  round  is  on  a white  ground.^  Mr,  McLaren's  smaller  carpet  is  of 
the  same  type,  but  less  complete  (Plate  2).  Another  carpet  of  the  kind, 
but  more  diversified,  with  ducks  and  fish  in  the  water,  and  hunting-animals 
and  birds  on  the  land,  is  here  illustrated  (Plate  3).  This  fine  carpet  passed 
some  years  ago  from  Constantinople  to  America  by  way  of  Berlin,  but  it 
has  since  been  brought  back  to  Europe,  Mr,  Carl  Robert  Lamm  of  Naesby 
House,  near  Stockholm,  the  possessor  of  some  fine  carpets  (several  of 
which  will  be  mentioned  later),  has  two  woollen  carpets  of  the  garden  ** 
type.  Both  are  relatively  late  examples — perhaps  not  made  before  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  finer  of  the  two,  measuring  about  10  ft,  by 
6 ft,,  has  a large  pond  in  the  middle  from  which  branch  four  broad  water- 
channels,  all  showing  fishes  and  water-plants*  At  the  sides  are  four 
square  ponds.  The  zigz^ig  lines  for  the  water  are  in  red,  green,  blue 
and  white,  giving  a rippling  effect  of  colour.  Broad  deep  blue  borders, 
varied  with  flowering  plants,  edge  the  water.  More  formal  arrangements 
of  flowers,  on  a red  ground,  fill  the  remaining  space,  Mr,  Lamm's  other 
carpet  is  not  complete ; it  shows  a stream  running  throughout  the  length, 
while  the  ground  on  either  side  is  divided  into  squares  with  formal  floral 
patterns  in  fairly  light  colours,^  It  draws  near  in  design  to  the  carpet 
reproduced  in  Plate  4,  but  the  latter  shows  a further  modification  of 
the  earlier  motives.  The  large  rectangular  space  in  the  middle  with  the 
flowering  plant  replaces  the  pond,  unless  indeed  the  plain  dark  background 
is  meant  for  water.  The  small  squares  covering  the  rest  of  the  space, 
each  with  its  plant,  shows  that  a garden  is  depicted,  though  without 
the  almost  indispensable  water-channels. 

This  carpet  brings  us  to  the  point  where  the  traditional  garden  " 
design  dies  away  into  the  general  stock  of  decorative  motives.  But  in 
order  to  grasp  the  basic  idea  of  Persian  carpet  designs  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  most  of  them  have  some  relation,  more  or  less  direct,  to 
a garden  or  park.  Inevitable  modifications,  brought  about  by  centuries 
of  repetition,  may  have  reduced  the  scheme  to  a formula,  but  even  under 
its  disguises  the  origin  is  often  unmistakable. 

The  designer  of  Chosroes'  carpet  aimed  at  bringing  indoors  for 
the  winter-time  the  outdoor  setting  of  a Persian  garden  in  spring.  Let 
this  conception  be  widened  to  bring  within  its  compass  the  sports  in 

^ Reproduced  in  colours  in  W.  A.  Hawley,  Oriental  Rugs,  New  York,  1913,  Colour- 
plate  VI. 

2 These  two  carpets  are  reproduced  by  Martin,  O.C.,  PI.  24  (in  colours)  ; Fig.  104. 

12 


PERSIA 


the  open  country,  with  the  huntsmen  and  animals,  the  trees,  birds  and 
flowers,  and  let  allowance  be  made  for  the  conventional  perspective  proper 
to  Eastern  art,  and  the  majority  of  Persian  carpet  patterns  are  made  clear* 
Brief  reference  to  the  varied  guises  these  designs  assume  will  be  made 
later.  Some  other  features  foreign  to  the  soil  of  Persia,  but  appearing 
there  at  an  early  time,  must  first  be  accounted  for.  In  the  art  of  Western 
Asia,  and  even  of  Europe,  during  the  last  thousand  years  there  is  abundant 
evidence  of  the  subtle  and  penetrating  influence  of  Chinese  design.  The 
outward  forms  in  which  the  singular  art  of  the  ancient  and  exclusive 
civilization  of  China  found  expression — the  dragons,  phoenixes,  con- 
ventional clouds  and  waves,  symbolic  objects,  and  the  peculiar  types 
of  architecture  and  costume — seem  to  have  acted  like  a spell  on  the  crafts- 
men who  met  with  them,  although  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  a moment's 
thought  was  given  to  the  complex  philosophy  which  called  them  into 
being.  It  is  natural  that  Manchurians,  Mongolians,  Coreans,  Tibetans 
and  people  of  more  or  less  kindred  stock  to  the  Chinese,  though  of  ruder 
civilization,  should  make  use  of  Chinese  wares  and  copy  their  ornamentation 
so  far  as  they  were  able.  But  the  effect  of  Chinese  art  upon  a people 
of  totally  different  race,  like  the  Persians,  with  a great  artistic  tradition  of 
their  own,  is  not  so  easy  to  understand.  Yet  it  is  there.  No  more  potent 
external  influence  is  to  be  found  in  the  carpet  designs  of  Persia  and  Western 
Asia  than  the  Chinese.  The  question  when  it  first  made  its  appearance 
is  involved  in  another,  that  of  the  date  of  the  earliest  existing  Oriental 
carpets.  Two  examples  reproduced  in  this  volume  may  be  instanced. 
The  first  (Plate  37A),  a carpet  of  Asia  Minor,  has  a design  obviously 
representing  the  Chinese  dragon  and  phoenix.  The  carpet  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  a later  chapter  (p.  46) ; it  need  only  be  pointed  out  at  the  moment 
that,  whatever  the  actual  date  of  this  carpet  may  be,  the  motives  repre- 
sented on  it  had  certainly  found  their  way  to  Asia  Minor  before  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  period  to  which  the  carpet  has  been  assigned.  The  other 
carpet  (Plate  5A)  is  Persian.  It  belongs  to  a group  to  which  an  even 
earlier  origin  has  been  ascribed.  The  intention  of  the  craftsman  to 
represent  the  Chinese  dragon  is  again  beyond  dispute.  The  archaistic 
rendering  has  led  an  eminent  authority.  Dr.  F.  R.  Martin,  to  attribute 
the  carpets  belonging  to  this  group  to  the  thirteenth  century,  a period 
when  Chinese  motives  are  already  quite  frequently  seen  on  the  lustred 
pottery  of  Persia.  Even  this  is  not  the  first  appearance  of  such  motives 
in  Western  Asia  ; it  is  rather  due  to  the  fresh  impetus  given  by  the  irruption 
of  Hulagu  the  Mongol,  who  caused  Chinese  craftsmen  to  follow  the 

13 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


track  of  his  conquering  armies.  He  is  said  to  have  transferred  a hundred 
families  of  Chinese  craftsmen  to  Persia  about  the  year  1256.  It  is  per- 
fectly safe  to  assume  that  Chinese  motives  were  to  be  found  on  the  Persian 
carpets  at  that  time^  but  it  may  be  questioned  whether  any  existing  carpet 
is  so  old.  The  complexity  of  the  subject  requires  a cautious  student 
to  be  on  his  guard,  for  such  motives  persisted  for  at  least  four  centuries 
after,  and  the  relatively  coarse  texture  of  such  a carpet  as  that  reproduced 
in  Plate  5A  might  account  for  the  angular  rendering,  and  in  some  degree 
for  the  archaic  appearance.  A very  similar  carpet  with  the  same  motives 
on  a brilliant  red  ground,  belonging  to  Mr.  Lamm  at  Naesby  House 
in  Sweden,  is  attributed  by  Dr.  Martin  to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Another  carpet,  with  leopards  attacking  various  animals  among 
trees,  rendered  in  the  same  primitive  angular  manner,  he  assigns  to  the 
end  of  the  century.  A third,  with  large  angular  palmettes  and  floral 
patterns,  is  ascribed  to  about  the  year  1320 ; and  a carpet  in  the  Kaiser- 
Friedrich  Museum  at  Berlin,  with  floral  ornament  within  formal  com- 
partments, to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.^  Thus  several 
distinct  Persian  types  are  traced  back  to  a remote  period,  the  evidence 
adduced  being  that  of  lustred  pottery  and  dated  Persian  miniature  paint- 
ings. The  eminent  Swedish  authority  has  done  a great  service  to  students 
by  investigating  and  recording  these  parallels,  which  are  perfectly 
just.  But  the  example  of  the  garden-carpet  of  Chosroes  is  a warning 
of  the  length  of  time  that  pattern  motives  linger  in  the  East  with  little 
essential  change.  The  risk  of  error  is  particularly  to  be  guarded  against 
in  the  case  of  pile- carpets.  Wherever  the  fineness  of  the  texture  is  reduced, 
and  this  may  take  place  at  any  period,  and  at  any  place,  an  angular  treat- 
ment is  inevitable,  bringing  about  a deceptive  appearance  of  archaism. 

Similar  problems  have  faced  those  who  have  attempted  to  assign 
dates  to  the  carpets  of  Asia  Minor  by  comparison  with  representations 
in  European  pictures,  and  the  consequences  have  been  the  same,  although 
each  line  of  inquiry  is  in  the  right  direction,  and  most  valuable  in  its 
results.^ 

As  an  illustration  of  the  difficulties  met  with,  the  carpets  reproduced 
in  Plates  5 and  6 may  be  compared.  The  first  belongs  to  the  group 
attributed  to  the  thirteenth  century.  It  came  from  an  Italian  church. 


Oriental  Carpets,  PI.  28,  Figs.  58,  59  and  64. 

^ See  Dr.  von  Bode’s  important  essay  on  Decorative  Animal  Figures  in  old  Oriental 
Carpets  in  the  great  publication  Oriental  Carpets,  Vienna,  1892-4,  p.  i.  Also  J.  Lessing, 
Alt  Orientalische  Teppichmuster,  Berlin,  1877. 

14 


PERSIA 


whither  it  probably  went  as  a new  carpet ; but  that  circumstance  affords 
little  help  in  dating  it*  The  other  (Plate  6)  is  similar  to  a carpet  exhibited 
in  1910  at  the  Munich  Exhibition^  and  attributed  there,  no  doubt  rightly, 
to  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  century*^  In  each,  the  field  is  broken 
up  into  irregular  lozenge  shaped  spaces  by  means  of  broad  multi-coloured 
bands,  intended  at  least  in  part,  and  perhaps  entirely,  for  long  leaves 
overlapping  one  another,  and  relieved  with  slender  floral  stems  super- 
imposed.2  The  enclosed  spaces  are  filled  with  dragons  or  palmettes, 
and  other  palmettes  are  placed  at  some  of  the  points  where  the  bands 
join.  There  is  a narrow  border  of  angular  floral  forms  on  a white  ground. 
This  description  serves  equally  well  for  both  carpets,  and  it  is  almost 
a question  which  is  the  older  of  the  two.  A greater  multiplicity  of  detail, 
with  a certain  waywardness  of  treatment  in  Plate  5A,  singles  that  out  as 
the  earlier,  although  there  is  little  likelihood  that  it  was  made  much  before 
the  sixteenth  century.^ 

These  carpets  were  probably  made  in  N.W.  Persia  or  Armenia. 
The  Armenians,  of  kindred  stock  to  the  Persians,  were  skilful  carpet- 
weavers.  One  argument  in  favour  of  this  attribution  is  the  existence 
of  such  examples  in  Italy The  Armenian  region  was  conveniently 
situated  for  the  transit,  having  access  to  the  Black  Sea,  while  the  difficulties 
of  transport  from  the  heart  of  Persia  excluded  bulky  goods  of  that  country 
almost  entirely  from  the  Mediterranean  trade.  Another  point  to  be  ob- 
served is  that  the  prominence  of  Chinese  motives  excludes  the  south 
of  Persia,  where  such  motives  hardly  penetrated  at  all.  Greater  help 
still  in  placing  these  carpets  is  afforded  by  a remarkable  example  which 
found  its  way  to  London  in  1899  (Plate  7).  This  carpet  resembles  in 
texture  and  colour,  and  to  some  extent  in  pattern,  that  illustrated  in 
Plate  6.  The  chief  difference  is  that  there  are  no  dragons.  The  spaces  are 
larger,  and  the  middle  paimette  is  replaced  by  a radiating  floral  device. 
Its  special  significance  lies  in  the  Armenian  inscription  knotted  in  at  the 
upper  end.  It  reads  thus  : **  I,  Gohar,  full  of  sin  and  feeble  in  soul, 
have  knotted  this  with  my  own  hands.  May  he  who  reads  pray  for  my 
soul.’'  Then  follows  the  Armenian  date  1129,  corresponding  to  a.d.  1679. 

^ Munich,  Meisterwerke,  PI,  65. 

2 The  use  of  leaves  or  leaf-shaped  panels  as  a background  to  hold  floral  forms  is  a 
common  feature  of  Persian  textile  design  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

^ Dr.  F.  Sarre  [Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  p.  i)  considers  the  fifteenth 
century  the  earliest  possible  date. 

^ Besides  the  example  already  mentioned  Dr.  von  Bode  obtained  one  from  a church 
near  Venice  (W.  Bode,  V orderasiatische  Kniipfteppiche,  Leipzig,  ist  ed.,  p.  no). 

15 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


The  route  this  carpet  took  to  the  West  late  in  the  nineteenth  century- 
may  be  that  by  which  such  carpets  in  Italy  came  long  before.  It  was 
taken  by  Turks  from  an  Armenian  church  and  was  carried  through  the 
province  of  Batum  to  the  Black  Sea,  whence  it  found  its  way  to  London.^ 

The  first  carpet  of  this  class  to  attract  general  attention  was  shown 
at  the  great  exhibition  of  Oriental  carpets  held  at  Vienna  in  1891.^  It 
had  been  obtained  from  a mosque  in  Damascus,  and  was  then  the  property 
of  Herr  Theodor  Graf,  but  it  has  since  been  acquired  by  the  Kaiser- Fried- 
rich Museum  at  Berlin.  Both  Chinese  dragons  and  unicorns  (cfii-lin) 
are  represented  ; an  effect  of  considerable  age  is  given  to  this  carpet 
by  the  unusually  subdued  colouring.  A few  years  ago  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum  acquired  the  example  (already  mentioned),  with  dragons 
and  **  unicorns,'"  remarkable  for  its  black  ground  which  gives  full  salience 
to  the  archaic  forms.  The  dividing  bands  are  in  pale  blue  and  yellow, 
and  the  narrow  formal  border  is  white  (Plate  8).  Another  example  in 
the  same  collection,  less  archaic  in  design,  has  dragons  on  a red 
ground  (Plate  5B).  This  carpet  is  rather  later  in  date,  and  obviously 
not  earlier  than  the  seventeenth  century.  Agreement  is  more  universal 
in  regard  to  the  early  origin  of  another  type  of  design.  There  is  generally 
a large  central  panel  extending  practically  across  the  whole  width  of 
the  carpet,  and  broken  up  by  different-coloured  grounds  ; smaller  panels 
extend  to  the  right  and  left.  The  ornament  throughout  consists  of  slender 
floral  stems,  running  into  spirals,  interlaced  with  arabesques.  The 
restraint  and  severity  of  the  design  point  to  a date  before  that  of  the  Ardabil 
carpet,  and  probably  within  the  limits  of  the  fifteenth  century,  though 
features  of  the  type  are  retained  in  later  carpets.  There  is  an  example 
in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  (Plate  9).^! 

Before  reverting  to  the  carpets  with  the  simpler  patterns  of  trees 
and  flowers,  some  other  more  complex  types  may  be  mentioned.  One 
is  the  hunting  " carpet,  which  first  appears  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  best  example,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all  carpets,  is  in  the 
Imperial  Austrian  collections  at  Schonbrunn  (Plate  10).  It  is  woven  in 
silk  and  gold  and  silver  thread.  The  huntsmen,  mounted  and  armed 
with  spears,  swords  and  arrows,  attack  lions,  leopards,  wolves,  boars, 
deer,  antelopes,  wild  asses,  jackals  and  hares.  The  ground  of  the  carpet 

^ The  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  was  not  able  to  do  more  than  take  a photograph 
of  this  carpet  before  it  left  the  country  again. 

2 Vienna,  O.C.,  1892-4,  PI.  36. 

^ Others  are  reproduced,  in  colours  in  Martin,  0.(7.,  PI.  2,  and  in  Ancient  Oriental 
Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  PI.  4. 

16 


PERSIA 


is  salmon-pink.  A large  eight-lobed  green  compartment  in  the  middle 
has  great  gold  dragons  and  phoenixes^  following  Chinese  models  more  closely 
than  those  on  the  carpets  hitherto  described.  The  deep  crimson  border 
has  a succession  of  winged  figures  repeating  a scene  in  which  a kneeling 
figure  offers  a bowl  of  fruit  to  another^  who  is  seated  and  wears  a crown. 
Such  winged  personages,  often  engaged  in  the  ordinary  occupations  of 
humanity,  will  be  met  with  again.  Each  of  the  corners  of  the  carpet 
shows  a fourth  part  of  the  central  design.  The  heads  of  men  in  the 
palmettes  of  the  outer  green  border,  and  of  lions  in  those  of  the  inner 
white  border,  will  be  noticed.  The  miscellaneous  nature  of  the  quarry 
and  the  confused  haste  of  the  riders  galloping  pell-mell  in  all  directions 
give  a pantomimic  air  to  the  scene,  but  the  picture  is  true  to  the  traditional 
way  of  hunting  in  Persia,  as  well  as  in  India  and  Central  Asia,^  still  followed, 
at  the  time  this  carpet  was  woven.  All  the  animals  in  the  neighbourhood 
were  driven  into  a prepared  enclosure,  which  the  hunting-party  entered 
afterwards,  to  engage  in  an  indiscriminate  massacre. 

The  elaborate  dress  of  the  figures  on  the  Schonbrunn  carpet  suggests 
a royal  hunting-party.  The  carpet  was  probably  woven  in  the  time  of 
Shah  Tahmasp  (i  524-1576) There  is  an  old  tradition  that  it  was  received 
by  the  Austrian  Emperor  as  a present  from  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia. 
Another  carpet  no  less  celebrated,  though  of  a different  type,  is  dated 
within  the  period  of  Tahmasp's  reign.  This  is  the  great  carpet  from 
the  mosque  at  Ardabil,  a small  town  of  the  province  of  Azerbaijan,  in 
the  north-west  of  Persia  (Plate  ii).  The  reason  why  such  a work  of 
art  should  have  come  from  a town  of  so  little  note  is  made  clear  by  the 
circumstances  of  the  time.  Tahmasp  was  the  second  king  of  the  Sefavi 
or  Safidian  dynasty — the  first  line  of  native  rulers  since  the  overthow  of 
the  Sassanian  dynasty  by  the  Arabs  more  than  eight  centuries  before. 
The  eponymous  ancestor  of  the  new  dynasty  was  Sheikh  Safi-ed-Din 
who,  dying  in  1334,  was  buried  at  Ardabil.  There  also  Shah  Ismail, 
father  of  Tahmasp,  was  buried.  The  veneration  in  which  the  tombs 
were  held,  and  the  association  with  the  ruling  house,  raised  Ardabil  to 

^ The  cheetah  or  hunting  leopard  is  not  seen  in  this  example,  though  it  is  found  in 
others.  The  animal  was  employed  in  Persia  from  an  early  date,  and  was  still  used  when 
these  hunting-carpets  were  woven. 

2 Dr.  F.  R.  Martin  suggests  that  Tahmasp ’s  Court  painter,  Sultan  Muhammad,  may 
have  designed  the  carpet  (F.  R.  Martin,  Miniature  Painting,  p.  117).  It  is  illustrated  in 
colours  in  Vienna,  Oriental  Carpets,  Pis.  81,  86-89.  See  also  Munich,  Meisterwerke,  Pis. 
42,  43.  A carpet  of  somewhat  similar  design,  in  the  collection  of  Baron  Maurice  Rothschild, 
is  illustrated  by  Bode  [V orderasiatische  Kniipfteppiche,  2nd  ed.,  Fig.  3).  It  was  obtained 
from  the  Marchese  Torrigiani  in  Italy. 


17 


0 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


the  dignity  of  the  religious  and  national  capital  of  Persia  ; its  prestige  lasted 
until  Shah  Abbas  rebuilt  Ispahan.  A carpet  of  this  size  and  importance 
can  only  have  been  made  to  the  order  of  Tahmasp  himself  for  the  mosque 
where  his  ancestors  were  buried.  The  date  upon  it  (A.H.946  = a.d.  1540) 
is  sixteen  years  after  the  death  of  his  father,  and  most  of  that  time  would 
have  been  taken  up  in  making  it  and  its  fellow.  A cartouche  at  one  end 
of  the  carpet  contains  a woven  inscription  which  has  been  translated 
as  follows  : 

“ I have  no  refuge  in  the  world  other  than  thy  threshold. 

There  is  no  place  of  protection  for  my  head  other  than  this  door. 

The  work  of  the  slave  of  the  threshold,  Maqsud  of  Kashan,  in  the  year 
946.” 

The  first  two  lines  are  the  beginning  of  an  ode  by  the  Persian  poet 
Hafiz  (d.  1389).  It  is  most  likely  that  the  carpet  was  made  at  Ardabil; 
the  Court  would  naturally  wish  to  watch  its  progress,  and  it  would  have 
been  as  easy  for  the  weaver  to  go  there  to  make  it,  as  for  a carpet  of  this  size 
(34  ft.  6 in.  by  17  ft.  6 in.)  to  be  transported  from  Kashan  when  made. 
It  remained  in  the  mosque  until  shortly  before  its  acquisition  by  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  in  1893.  Fifty  years  earlier  it  was  seen  by 
an  English  traveller,  W.  R.  Holmes,  who  visited  Ardabil  in  1843.  He 
wrote  of  it  as  follows : On  the  floor  (of  the  long  lofty  ante-chamber  to  the 

principal  tombs)  were  the  faded  remains  of  what  was  once  a very  splendid 
carpet,  the  manufacture  of  which  very  much  surpassed  that  of  the  present 
day.  At  one  extremity  was  woven  the  date  of  its  make,  some  three  hun- 
dred years  ago.''  ^ The  disparaging  note  of  its  condition,  if  ever  warranted, 
is  no  longer  applicable.  The  carpet  has  been  skilfully  repaired,  parts 
of  another  carpet  of  similar  design,  removed  from  the  mosque  at  the 
same  time,  having  been  sacrificed  for  the  purpose.^ 

Some  idea  of  the  design  of  the  carpet  will  be  gained  from  the  illus- 
tration. The  pulsating  blue  ground  is  covered  with  thousands  of  flowers. 
The  great  circular  panel  of  lobed  outline  in  the  middle  is  yellow,  with 
sixteen  pointed  compartments  radiating  from  it  in  yellow,  green  or  red. 
All  are  filled  with  cloud  bands,  arabesques  and  floral  stems  in  colours. 
Two  hanging  lamps  are  represented,  to  the  right  and  left  of  this  central 
device,  A fourth  part  of  the  same  device  is  repeated  at  each  corner.  The 
panels  in  the  border  are  red  and  yellow,  on  a ground  of  deep  purple  tone. 

^ W.  R.  Holmes,  Sketches  on  the  Shores  of  the  Caspian,  1845. 

2 What  remained  of  the  second  carpet  passed  into  the  Yerkes  Collection  ; it  has  since 
been  sold  again,  but  it  remains  in  America. 

18 


PERSIA 


It  will  be  observed  that  human  and  animal  forms^  both  prevalent  in  Persian 
carpets  of  the  time,  are  not  included*  Such  representations  would  not 
have  been  suitable  for  a mosque*  The  design  is  of  a double  character* 
The  central  ornament,  with  its  sixteen  radiating  ogival  panels,  belongs, 
not  to  the  ground  like  the  floral  stems,  but  to  the  dome  overhead*  Such 
embellishments  may  be  found  on  Persian  domed  ceilings*  There  is 
an  example  in  the  vestibule  of  the  college  of  the  Shah  Hussein  at  Ispahan, 
where  the  ceiling  has  in  the  middle  a circular  panel  with  sixteen  pointed 
projections  and  sixteen  ogival  panels  radiating  from  them,  very  similar 
to  the  device  on  the  carpet*^  The  two  mosque  lamps  are  appropriately 
introduced  as  hanging  from  the  ceiling  on  either  side*  The  pile  is 
entirely  of  wool,  on  silk  warps*  There  are  about  three  hundred  hand- 
tied  knots  to  the  square  inch,  making  a total  of  about  30  million  knots  for 
the  whole  carpet*  This  represents  approximately  twenty-four  years^ 
work  of  a single  skilled  weaver*  It  is  probable,  however,  that  several 
assistants  worked  with  the  master-weaver*  Assuming  that  so  many  as 
eight  people  were  able  to  work  together  at  the  loom,  even  then  the  carpet 
would  take  three  years^  continuous  labour  to  make* 

Another  carpet  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  almost  challenges 
the  claim  of  the  Ardabil  carpet  to  the  first  place  in  the  collection*  Both 
are  the  most  famous  examples  of  the  respective  classes  to  which  they 
belong — for  they  are  conspicuously  different  in  design,  as  well  as  in  colour* 
Every  detail  of  the  elaborate  design  is  planned  with  the  utmost  care,  and 
copied  by  the  weaver  with  consummate  skill*  The  colouring  is  harmonious, 
with  a simplicity  and  at  the  same  time  a subdued  splendour  which  never 
wearies  the  eye*  The  knotting  is  very  fine,  as  required  by  the  design* 
The  warps  are  of  silk,  and  the  pile  is  of  wool  throughout,  with  about 
450  knots  to  the  square  inch*  The  first  plate  of  this  volume  reproduces 
the  carpet  in  colours*  It  will  be  seen  that  the  ground  is  a purplish  crimson 
of  a carmine  tone,  although  no  coloured  plate  can  do  justice  to  the  colouring 
of  the  original*  Upon  this  ground  is  a network  of  panels  in  very  deep 
blue,  almost  black*  There  is  a large  circle  of  lobed  outline  to  the  right 
and  left  of  the  centre  of  the  carpet*  In  the  middle  of  each  side  is  a half- 
section of  this  panel,  and  a quarter-section  in  each  corner*  Eight  pointed 
oval  compartments  unite  the  central  panels  with  the  sections  round  the 
edge*  This  disposition  recalls  the  scheme  of  the  Ardabil  carpet,  but  it 
is  less  elaborate  and  more  closely  linked  up*  The  panels  are  filled  with 
a pattern  of  arabesques  and  palmettes,  and  each  pointed  oval  has  two 
^ P.  Coste,  Monuments  modernes  de  la  Perse,  Paris,  1867,  PI.  XXI. 

19 


HAND -WOVEN  CARPETS 


flying  ducks  in  addition*  The  centre  of  the  carpet^  often  made  the  most 
conspicuous  feature  by  the  Persian  designer,  is  here  occupied  by  a small 
round  pond  with  fish.  On  either  side  of  the  pond  stands  a large  two- 
handled  vase  supported  by  two  dragons  on  a lion-pedestal,  and  containing 
flowers.  One  vase  and  half  of  the  pond  is  repeated  in  the  middle  of 
each  of  the  short  sides  of  the  carpet.  The  rest  of  the  field  is  covered 
with  blossoming  and  fruit-bearing  trees  and  floral  stems,  amid  which 
are  lions  (some  preying  on  antelopes  and  black  oxen),  gazelles,  and  falcons 
pouncing  on  herons.  The  wide  border  is  divided  in  counterchange 
fashion  by  slender  arabesque  stems,  with  a dark  blue  and  crimson  ground 
matching  the  middle  colours.  It  has  a pattern  of  slender  floral  stems, 
and  cloud  forms,  with  animals,  birds  and  dragons.  The  heads  of  lions 
and  other  animals  among  the  interlaced  stems  of  the  narrow  outer  border 
should  be  noticed.  There  is  a restraint  and  regular  sequence  both  in 
design  and  colouring  which  have  induced  writers  to  attribute  it  to  an  early 
period.  Dr.  von  Bode  ascribes  it  to  early  Safidian  times.  Martin  assigns 
it  to  Eastern  Persia  at  an  earlier  date  still — about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century.^  The  place  of  the  design  in  order  of  sequence  is  undoubtedly 
where  these  experts  put  it.  We  must,  however,  admit  the  greater 
probability  of  a sixteenth-century  origin  until  more  light  is  thrown  on 
the  problem  of  early  Persian  carpets.  The  use  of  silk  warps,  and  the 
character  of  the  vases  and  other  details  of  the  pattern,  favour  that  view. 
This  carpet,  with  that  from  Ardabil,  has  an  indisputable  place  in  the 
foremost  ranks  of  the  great  carpets  of  the  world.  Several  of  the  classes 
of  motives  used  in  it  are  retained  as  the  main  theme  of  Persian  carpets 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  A remarkably  fine  carpet 
belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Ilchester  is  of  that  time  (Plate  12).  The  hunting 
animals  are  set  in  a pattern  of  floral  stems,  on  a red  ground. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  carpets  representing  roaming  animals 
is  in  the  Museum  of  the  Gobelins,  Paris  (Plate  13).^  The  lions,  tigers 
and  leopards,  seen  preying  on  oxen,  stags  and  antelopes,  are  on  a red 
background,  covered  with  conventional  stems  in  place  of  the  naturalistic 
trees  usually  shown.  A lobed  circular  compartment  in  the  middle  is  in 
pale  blue  and  red,  with  animals,  floral  stems  and  cloud-bands.  On  the 
right  and  left  of  this  compartment  there  is  a device,  half-finial,  half-vase, 
evidently  a modified  rendering  of  the  vase  with  two  peacocks  shown  on 
the  carpet  just  described  (Plate  i).  The  spandrel  in  each  corner  is 

^ Bode,  V orderasiatische  Knupfteppiche,  2nd  ed.,  p.  33  ; Martin,  O.C.,  p.  33. 

2 Reproduced  in  colours  in  Vienna,  O.C.,  PI.  74. 

20 


PERSIA 


brownish  yellow  with  floral  stems  and  arabesques  interlaced.  The  longer 
panels  in  the  border  are  inscribed  with  a poem,  describing  the  carpet  as 
pressed  by  the  foot  of  a world-ruling  monarch,  and  beautiful  as  Eden, 
so  that  it  is  an  object  of  envy  to  Chinese  art.  Its  flowery  bed  shows  an 
ever-lovely  spring,  that  no  gales  or  storms  can  touch. 

Verses  which  have  given  the  inspiration  for  the  design,  or  perhaps  in 
some  cases  have  been  suggested  by  it,  are  inscribed  on  numbers  of  Persian 
carpets.  They  are  usually  to  be  seen,  as  in  this  instance,  in  bold  letters  on  a 
row  of  panels  in  the  border.  Sometimes  they  run  continuously  along  narrow 
bands,  or  fill  smaller  spaces.  They  speak  of  the  springtime,  of  the  stars, 
the  clouds,  the  winds,  the  dew  and  the  raindrops ; of  gardens,  flowers  and 
birds  ; of  love,  and  the  wine-bowl ; they  give  expression  to  good  wishes 
for  freedom  from  care,  and  for  springtime  all  the  year  round.  Sometimes 
these  verses  are  borrowed  from  their  national  poets,  whom  the  Persians 
never  weary  of  quoting.  A poem  in  praise  of  the  spring  flowers — the 
rose,  narcissus,  tulip  and  violet — is  woven  in  silver  thread  on  a carpet 
with  a similar  border  to  the  last,  in  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs  in 
Paris.^  There  is  a large  circle  in  the  middle  of  this  carpet  with  blossoming 
trees,  flowers  and  peacocks,  on  panels  of  different  colours.  The  ground 
beyond  is  black,  and  covered  with  stems  and  cloud  forms  in  colours  and 
silver  thread.  An  ode  to  the  nightingale  among  the  rose-bushes  is  on  the 
inner  border  of  a carpet  in  wool,  gold  and  silver  lent  by  Baron  Nathaniel 
Rothschild  to  the  Vienna  Exhibition  of  1891.2  The  bird  and  the  flowers 
are  represented  in  the  middle  of  the  carpet,  round  a small  pond.  The 
rest  of  the  design  consists  of  a formal  arrangement  of  arabesques  and 
palmettes.  Verses  describing  the  delights  of  spring,  and  others  praising 
the  nightingale  are  inserted  on  a carpet  with  arabesque  patterns  in  a private 
collection  in  Paris.®  The  most  celebrated  of  all  Persian  poets,  Hafiz, 
is  quoted  at  some  length  on  a remarkably  fine  carpet  in  the  Salting  Collection 
at  South  Kensington  (Plate  14).  The  materials  are  wool  and  gold  and 
silver  thread  on  silk  warps,  and  the  texture  is  very  fine.  The  verses  are 
in  silver  thread  on  elongated  dark  red  panels  in  the  border.  They  have 
been  translated  as  follows  : — 

Call  for  wine  and  scatter  roses  : what  dost  thou  seek  from  Time  ? — thus  spake 
the  rose  at  dawn,  O nightingale,  what  sayest  thou  ? 


^ Reproduced  in  colours,  Vienna,  O.G.,  PI.  71. 

2 Reproduced  in  colours,  Vienna,  O.C.,  PI,  97. 

® Illustrated  in  colours  in  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  PI.  2. 

21 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Take  the  cushion  to  the  garden,  that  thou  mayest  hold  the  lip  and  kiss  the  cheek 
of  the  beloved  and  the  cup-bearer,  and  drink  wine  and  smell  the  rose. 

Proudly  move  thy  graceful  form  and  to  the  garden  go,  that  the  cypress  may 
learn  from  thy  stature  how  to  win  hearts. 

To-day  while  thy  market  is  full  of  the  tumult  of  buyers,  gain  and  put  by  a 
store  out  of  the  capital  of  goodness. 

Every  bird  brings  a melody  to  the  garden  of  the  King, — the  nightingale,  songs 
of  love,  and  Hafiz,  prayers  for  blessing.^ 


The  pattern  of  floral  sterns^  cloud-bands  and  birds,  and  tigers  fighting 
dragons,  betrays  Chinese  influence.  The  device  of  a lion's  mask  within 
a palmette,  frequently  seen  on  Persian  carpets,  is  repeated  several  times  ; 
the  masks  are  sometimes  merely  attached  to  the  stems  like  flowers.  In 
spite  of  the  wonderful  freshness  of  colour  and  the  fine  state  of  preservation 
of  this  carpet,  it  cannot  very  well  be  attributed  to  a later  date  than  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  was  obtained  in  Constantinople  rather  more  than 
thirty  years  ago,  when  it  was  stated  to  have  been  in  the  collections  of 
the  Sultan. 

Another  carpet  reputed  to  have  come  from  the  Turkish  sultan's 
palace  is  of  the  same  class,  in  the  same  materials  and  equally  well  preserved. 
It  was  obtained  by  Prince  Lobanoff-Rostowsky  when  Russian  ambassador 
in  Constantinople  in  the  late  'seventies  of  last  century,  and  afterwards 
ceded  by  him  to  the  Stieglitz  Museum  in  Petrograd.^  The  border  has 
an  ode  to  a conqueror,  greater  than  Darius,  Alexander  and  Feridun, 
before  whose  victorious  progress  throne-carpets  are  spread.  The  central 
panel  is  similar  to  that  on  the  carpet  in  the  Salting  Collection.  The 
white  ground  around  is  covered  with  delicate  interlacing  stems  of  flowers 
and  cloud-bands,  amid  which  tigers,  leopards  stalking  stags,  jackals  and 
Chinese  dragons  are  seen.  Among  the  stems  in  the  green  spandrels 
are  parrots,  pheasants,  and  a falcon  seizing  a heron.  The  alternation  of 
inscribed  elongated  panels  with  circular  panels  to  form  a border,  as 
exemplified  in  the  carpets  just  described,  is  quite  often  found  in  other 
Persian  works  of  art.  A segment  of  a damascened  brass  dish,  showing 
such  a border,  is  illustrated  on  Plate  15B.  A Persian  begging-bowl,  of 
engraved  copper,  reproduced  on  the  same  Plate  (15A),  shows  the  Chinese 
cloud-band  as  seen  on  the  carpets.  These  animated  forest  or  park-land 

^ Hafiz,  Divan  (ed.  H.  Brockhaus,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  175-6). 

2 Illustrated  in  colours  in  Vienna,  0.(7.,  PI.  XI.  A description  of  this  carpet  by  M.  A. 
Polovtsoff,  Director  of  the  Museum,  has  been  published  in  the  Burlington  Magazine  (Vol. 
XXXV,  1919,  p.  16). 


22 


PERSIA 


scenes  have  not  always  the  accompaniment  of  descriptive  verses  in  gold 
and  silver, 

A woollen  carpet  in  the  possession  of  Prince  Schwarzenberg  ^ has 
a pond  with  ducks  in  the  middle.  The  deep  blue  ground  beyond  is  closely 
covered  with  cypresses  and  blossoming  trees  and  plants  naturalistically 
drawn^  with  a great  phoenix  sei2;ing  a small  bird  in  each  corner,  and  more 
birds  and  animals  below. 

Half  of  a carpet,  in  wool  on  silk  warps,  with  a similar  design  in  different 
colours,  is  in  the  Cathedral  of  Cracow ; the  other  half  found  its  way  to 
Paris,  where  it  is  now  in  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs,^ 

In  other  examples,  which  need  not  be  specified,  the  trees  and  flowers 
cover  the  whole  ground,  not  balanced  in  opposing  directions  from  the 
middle,  as  is  usual  in  carpets  Vv^ith  central  panels,  but  continued  in  an 
unbroken  stretch  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  borders  of  such  carpets 
vary  considerably ; they  are  generally  wide,  with  a formal  design  as  a 
contrast  to  the  free  rendering  of  the  middle  pattern,® 

One  example,  in  which  the  landscape  idea  is  very  clearly  marked, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  pass  unnoticed.  It  is  in  the  Museum  of  Art 
and  Industry  at  Vienna,  The  trees,  shrubs  and  plants  are  represented 
with  careful  fidelity  to  nature.  There  are  peacocks,  pheasants  and  storks 
on  the  ground,  and  various  smaller  birds  in  the  foliage,”* 

Much  help  may  be  derived  from  Persian  miniature  paintings, 
particularly  from  those  of  ascertained  date,  in  the  study  of  carpets.  Their 
rendering  of  landscape  often  explains  a carpet  design,  and  sometimes 
an  actual  carpet  is  represented,  A painting  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
here  illustrated,  will  suffice  to  show  the  lines  on  which  comparisons  may 
be  made  (Plate  i6),  A Persian  prince  is  seen  in  a garden  with  its  central 
pond  and  ducks,  its  straight  water- channels  and  vases.  Carpets  with 
figures  remain  yet  to  be  described ; the  other  motives  have  already  been 
met  with.  Beyond  the  enclosure  are  the  cypresses  and  blossoming  trees 
so  often  seen  on  the  carpets.  Suspended  over  the  princess  head,  ignoring 
in  its  delineation  all  rules  of  perspective,  is  a floral  carpet  serving  as  a 
canopy.  Courtiers  are  seated  on  others  spread  on  the  ground.  Another 

^ Illustrated  in  colours  in  Vienna,  O.C.,  PI.  XXXI.  See  also  Meisterwerke,  Munich, 
PI.  45. 

2 Vienna,  O.G.,  PI.  31  ; G.  Migeon,  Exp.  des  Arts  Musulmans,  Paris,  1903,  PI.  73. 

2 There  is  a specimen  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  No.  3 — -1887. 

^ Reproduced  in  colours,  Vienna,  O.G.,  PI.  I.  Dr.  Martin  [Oriental  Garpets,  Fig.  236) 
claims  an  Indian  origin  for  this  carpet.  It  may  have  been  made  in  India,  but  the  motives 
are  Persian. 


23 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


miniature  of  about  the  same  period  shows  three  pile-carpets — one  spread 
on  a low  platform  for  a prince  to  sit  on,  another  forming  a canopy  over 
his  head,  and  a third  thrown  over  the  back  of  an  elephant  (Plate  ly)* 
One  of  the  simplest  and  most  pleasing  kinds  of  Persian  carpet-design 
is  based  on  plant  forms  throughout.  An  incomplete  carpet  of  this  type 
in  the  Austrian  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry,  Vienna,  is  illustrated  in 
Plate  1 8.  The  white  ground  is  covered  with  an  arrangement  of  trailing 
floral  stems,  while  another  system  of  slender  stems  superimposed  and 
carrying  large  palmettes  suggests  a partition  into  panels  of  regular  shape. 
In  the  middle  of  one  of  these  is  a vase ; there  would  have  been  several 
others  in  the  entire  carpet.^  In  many  of  these  carpets  the  stems  issue 
from  vases,  generally  disproportionately  small,  placed  at  regular  intervals. 
They  may  seem  a little  tame  after  such  carpets  as  have  been  described 
hitherto,  in  which  much  use  has  been  made  of  the  enlivening  effect  of 
animals  and  birds,  but  the  variety  of  plant  forms  and  the  usual  quiet 
harmony  of  the  colouring  make  amends.  Two  examples  in  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum  show  a variation  in  the  design.  Instead  of  the 
trailing  stems,  flowering  plants  are  shown  entire  to  the  roots,  as  they 
would  be  seen  in  a garden-bed.  They  are  enclosed  by  the  stems  bearing 
palmettes,  as  in  the  carpet  just  described.  The  larger  one  was  formerly 
a valued  possession  of  William  Morris.  The  other  was  obtained  in 
Constantinople.  Each  has  a deep  red  ground  and  a blue  border.^ 

The  naturalistic  floral  treatment  is  somewhat  modified,  in  a fine 
carpet  in  the  same  Museum,  by  a succession  of  large  lozenge -forms  of 
lobed  outline  in  dark  and  light  blue,  purple-brown,  salmon  pink  and 
white  (Plate  19).  The  carpet  is  large,  and  the  panels  are  introduced  to  give 
relief  to  the  wide  stretch  of  deep  crimson  colour.  The  stems  pass  through 
them  without  interruption.  The  vases  are  shown  sometimes  in  the 
panels  and  sometimes  beyond.  There  is  a deep  blue  floral  border. 

When  the  vases  disappear  from  these  carpets,  there  is  sometimes 
a more  assertive  arrangement  of  the  floral  motives  in  panels.  A carpet 
belonging  to  Mr.  Lamm  of  Naesby  has  a series  of  panels,  each  nearly 
4 ft.  long,  in  various  colours,  containing  formal  floral  ornament ; the 
intervening  spaces  each  contain  a blossoming  tree  on  a dark  blue  ground.® 

^ Reproduced  in  colours  in  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  PI.  ii. 

2 The  first  is  illustrated  in  colours  in  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  PL  19. 
Others  similar  are  reproduced  in  Pis.  5,  9,  and  10.  Sir  Isidore  Spielmann  has  a portion  of 
a very  fine  carpet  of  this  type  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  Catalogue  of  the  Franco- British 
Exhibition,  1921,  PI.  32). 

® Illustrated  in  colours  in  Martin,  0.(7.,  PI.  i ; also  in  Meisterwerke,  Munich,  PI.  66. 

24 


PERSIA 


A very  effective  design  of  the  type  was  exemplified  by  a carpet  lent  by 
Count  Clam-Gallas  to  the  Munich  Exhibition  of  igiod  The  panels 
are  alternately  quatrefoil  and  fan-shaped^  with  floral  and  arabesque  patterns^ 
cloud-bands  and  peacocks  on  grounds  of  several  colours.  The  background 
is  dark  red^  with  flowering  trees.  At  the  same  exhibition  was  to  be  seen 
a carpet  belonging  to  the  Imperial  Ottoman  Museum  at  Constantinople 
in  which  the  ground  is  entirely  divided  up  into  large  lozenge-spaces  of 
various  colours  containing  floral  forms.^  A portion  of  a very  similar 
carpet  is  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  (Plate  20b)  and  another  is 
in  the  Kunstgewerbe  Museum^  Berlin,®  These  floral  carpets  are  generally 
attributed  to  the  weavers  of  the  province  of  Kirman  in  the  south-east. 
It  is  not  without  significance  that  a favourite  type  of  carpet  made  there 
in  more  recent  times  shows  close  rows  of  vases  of  flowers^  generally  on 
a white  ground.^  The  almost  entire  absence  of  Chinese  motives  in  these 
carpets  is  a strong  argument  in  favour  of  a South  Persian  origin. 
Occasionally  carpets  of  this  type  have  a long  looped  nap  at  the  back^ 
like  a bath  towel,  for  warmth.  This  would  be  a very  suitable  provision 
at  Kirman,  where  the  cold  is  sometimes  severe,  owing  to  its  altitude 
of  6,000  ft.  A modern  loom  from  Kirman,  with  a typical  carpet  of  the 
district  partly  woven  upon  it,  is  illustrated  in  Plate  92. 

One  of  the  largest  Oriental  pile-carpets  ever  made,  and  one  of  singular 
design,  was  formerly  in  the  Hall  of  the  Forty  Columns  (Chihal  Sutun) 
at  Ispahan,  It  measured  more  than  70  ft,  long  by  30  ft.  wide,®  So  wide 
a loom  for  a finely  knotted  carpet  must  have  been  a prodigious  affair  to 
work  at,  and  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  carpet  even  and  straight  during 
its  manufacture  must  have  been  great.  It  had  a red  ground,  with  a 
formal  arrangement  of  large  white  flowers  and  green  stems  behind  a trellis 
of  yellow  stems,  each  opening  being  9 ft,  in  length.  The  border,  which  was 
6 ft,  wide,  was  filled  with  the  same  ornament  on  dark  blue.  This  carpet  was 
placed  in  the  great  hall  behind  the  throne-room.®  It  has  been  gradually 
dismembered  by  travellers  within  the  last  forty  years.  Three  fragments 
ultimately  found  their  way  to  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  where  also 

^ Illustrated  in  MeisUrwerhe,  PI.  50  ; in  colours  in  Vienna,  O.C.,  PI.  32  ; also  in 
Martin,  O.C.,  Fig.  102,  and  Bode,  Vorderas.  Kniipfteppiche,  2nd  ed.,  Fig.  19. 

2 Meisterwerke,  PI.  52  ; Martin,  0.(7.,  Fig.  86. 

3 Reproduced  in  colours  in  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  Pis.  9,  21. 

^ A fine  example  is  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  No.  100.  It  is  inscribed  with 
the  name  of  a Kirman  weaver. 

® See  p.  106. 

® There  is  a plan  of  the  Pavilion,  showing  the  room  in  which  the  carpet  was  placed, 
in  P.  Coste,  Monuments  modernes  de  la  Perse,  Paris,  1867,  PI.  41. 

25 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


may  be  seen  a drawing  reconstructing  the  design  (Plate  21)*  The  carpet 
was  of  the  period  of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great  (1586-1628),  who  built  the 
hall  in  which  it  was  placed  ; it  was  probably  made  during  the  latter  part 
of  this  monarch's  reign*  Dr.  F.  R.  Martin,  who  emphasises  the 
approximation  of  the  design  to  those  on  Indian  carpets  at  Jaipur,  claims 
it  for  the  Indian  weavers.  The  arguments  against  such  an  attribution 
are  formidable.  Why  should  Abbas,  under  whom  carpet- weaving  in 
Persia  flourished  greatly,  have  the  carpet  for  the  great  open  pavilion  of 
his  own  palace  woven  in  India  s'  And  assuming  that  he  did,  how  was 
the  wellnigh  insurmountable  task  of  transporting  such  a bulky  object 
over  the  difficult  country  between  the  Panjab  and  Ispahan  overcome  s' 
Dr.  Martin  claims  that  all  such  carpet  designs  were  woven  in  India.  It 
appears  easier,  on  the  whole,  to  adapt  the  theory  to  fit  the  carpet 
than  the  carpet  to  fit  the  theory.  What  was  done  at  Lahore  in  factories 
inaugurated  by  Persian  weavers  may  have  been  done  in  Persia  as 
well. 

The  Persians  have  not  shackled  their  artistic  gifts  by  notions  about 
the  precedence  of  one  kind  of  art  over  another.  They  have  ignored  all 
distinctions  of  the  sort,  and  much  of  the  fine  quality  of  their  art 
is  due  to  this.  The  range  of  design  seen  in  their  carpets,  for  example, 
is  no  less  extensive  than  that  in  their  paintings,  and  it  includes 
every  class  of  subject  attempted  by  carpet-weavers  elsewhere.  Hunting 
scenes,  first  shown  on  the  carpets  of  Persia,  are  only  found  outside  that 
country  in  Indian  copies.  Figure-subjects  form  another  special  group, 
shared  only  by  India  (again  as  a copyist)  and  China,  if  we  may  pass  over 
the  diminutive  and  grotesque  human  forms  which  occasionally  fill  odd 
corners  in  Caucasian  and  Turcoman  work.  It  has  been  reserved  for  the 
modern  Kirman  weaver  to  turn  his  whole  carpet  into  a picture  in  semi- 
European  style.i  In  older  Persian  carpets  figures  are  freely  introduced, 
though  with  a better  sense  of  restraint.  In  hunting  scenes  the  theme 
requires  the  figures  to  be  generally  distributed.  In  most  other  cases  they 
appear  singly  or  in  small  groups — in  the  border  or  spandrels,  or  in 
compartments  upon  the  central  field.  In  the  silk  brocades  of  Persia, 
where  a better  opportunity  for  showing  detail  renders  comparison  with 

1 A carpet  of  extraordinarily  fine  technique,  in  the  possession  of  Sir  Charles  Marling, 
shows  a group  of  figures  taken  from  Watteau’s  Fetes  venitiennes.  An  inwoven  inscription 
states  that  it  is  from  the  Atelier  of  ‘ All  Kirmani,  and  the  dates  a.h.  1324  and  1327  (a.d.=  I9o6, 
1909)  are  both  woven.  It  must  have  taken  several  years  to  make.  Other  Kirman  carpets 
of  similar  type  showing  groups  of  ancient  and  modern  worthies,  or  single  portraits  of  the 
Shah,  are  not  rare. 


26 


PERSIA 


dated  miniature  paintings  an  easier  task^  the  weaving  of  figure-subjects 
appears  to  have  been  in  vogue  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Tahmasp 
(1524-1576)^  lasting  well  into  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  carpets 
these  subjects  are  found  about  the  same  time^  and  they  remain  popular 
throughout  the  following  century.  Figures  are  represented  among  the 
trees  of  a garden^  eating  fruit,  drinking  wine,  or  listening  to  music.  By 
a strange  convention  the  figures  are  sometimes  winged,  but  their 
occupations  are  still  the  same,  or  they  are  seated  alone.  By  the  time 
these  carpets  were  woven  the  wings  had  lost  all  significance  they  may 
ever  have  had, 

A remarkable  carpet  in  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch 
(Plate  22)  is  divided  up  into  pointed  oval  and  lobed  compartments.  The 
former  contain  repetitions  of  three  scenes — a falconer  on  horseback ; 
two  standing  figures  in  a garden,  one  giving  drink  to  the  other ; and 
three  seated  figures  in  a garden,  one  with  a tambourine,  another  with  a 
bottle,  and  the  third  with  a cup.  In  the  oblong  compartments  are  birds 
and  flowers.  The  red  ground  beyond  these  compartments  is  covered 
with  beasts  of  prey — lions,  tigers,  leopards  and  wolves — hunting  stags, 
antelopes  and  goats.  The  broad  border  has  a succession  of  elongated 
yellow  panels  enclosing  dragons  and  phoenixes,  alternating  with  pairs  of 
dragons  intertwining  in  circles.  The  dark  blue  ground  is  covered  with 
running  animals  amid  floral  stems.  The  narrow  outer  border  has  masks 
of  lions  and  heads  of  oxen  connected  by  slender  stems, 

A group  of  figures  drinking  and  listening  to  music,  seated  round  a 
pond  with  water-fowl,  is  represented  on  a carpet  formerly  in  the  Bardini 
Collection  at  Florence,^  The  seated  winged  figures  in  the  border 
of  the  great  hunting-carpet  at  Schonbrunn  (Plate  10)  are  found 
again  in  several  carpets.  One  in  the  Lyons  Museum  has  them  in  the 
border,  and  scenes  similar  to  those  on  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch's  carpet  in 
the  middle,^  Single-winged  figures  are  to  be  seen  on  the  spandrels  of  a 
remarkable  carpet  (of  which  barely  one-half  is  preserved)  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  given  to  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  by  the  late  Mr.  C,  T. 
Garland,  It  is  in  wool  and  gold  and  silver  thread,  with  a fine  design  of 
hunting  animals,®  A later  hunting-carpet,  entirely  in  wool,  made  in  the 
first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  has  on  each  spandrel  a group  of  three 

^ Martin,  O.C.,  Fig.  127. 

2 Martin,  O.C.,  Fig.  138  ; R.  Cox,  L’Art  de  decorer  les  Tissus,  Paris,  1900,  PI.  53. 

® V.A.M.  Notes  on  Carpet-knotting  and  Weaving,  1920,  frontispiece.  See  also  Bur- 
lington Magazine,  XXV,  1919,  p.  12. 


27 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


winged  figures,  in  this  case  appropriately  in  cloudsd  There  is  one  more 
instance  in  which  some  ultra-human  attribute  is  apparently  assigned  to 
the  winged  figures,  on  the  celebrated  silk  carpet  in  the  Poldi-Pe^2;oli 
Museum  at  Milan,^  Among  the  trees  and  plants  two  of  them  are  seated 
before  a bowl  of  flowers  overshadowed  by  a canopy  of  Chinese  form. 
Perhaps  in  earlier  versions  of  the  motive  the  bowl  was  an  altar. 

There  were  originally  two  figures  on  the  spandrels  of  a carpet  in  the 
Kaiser-Friedrich  Museum  at  Berlin  ; one  is  seated  and  the  other,  probably 
an  attendant,  standing.  Nothing  more  than  the  lower  portion  of  these 
figures  is  preserved.  The  carpet  was  formerly  in  the  synagogue  at  Genoa, 
and  the  Jewish  objection  to  the  representation  of  human  figures  is  thought 
to  explain  the  mutilation,® 

Two  old  love-stories  of  Persia  have  kept  their  popularity  for  many 
centuries — those  of  Khusrau  and  Shirin,  and  Laila  and  Majnun,  They 
appear  again  and  again  in  Persian  miniatures  and  textiles.  Both  are 
shown  on  a carpet  in  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs  in  Paris  (Plate  23), 
Each  scene  is  rendered  in  the  traditional  manner.  In  the  first,  the  beautiful 
Shirin  has  dismounted  from  her  horse  to  bathe,  and  she  is  seated  dressing 
her  hair,  with  her  garments  hanging  on  the  bough  of  a tree  above,  when 
Prince  Khusrau  (Chosroes),  who  has  been  out  hunting,  rides  past.  The 
hunting-party,  from  which  the  Prince  has  strayed,  has  the  authority  of 
the  old  story.  The  appearance  among  the  riders,  of  Laila  encountering 
the  poor  distraught  poet  Majnun  in  the  desert,  may  perhaps  be  explained 
on  the  supposition  that  it  was  thought  appropriate  to  bring  in  this  story 
where  the  other  was  shown.  It  will  be  noticed  that  two  of  the  huntsmen 
throw  their  bows  over  the  necks  of  antelopes.  The  ground  is  deep 
blue,  and  that  of  the  border  red.  The  outer  stripe  of  the  border  is  dark 
blue,  and  the  inner  white.  The  latter  has  a fantastic  pattern  of  heads 
of  men,  lions  and  horses  linked  together  by  blossoming  sterns.^ 

A strange  nautical  scene  is  occasionally  found  in  the  spandrels  of 
carpets  of  a relatively  late  class,  probably  made  towards  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  One  example,  in  the  Lyons  Museum,  shows  two 


^ In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  Reproduced  in  colours,  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets, 
Leipzig,  1906-8  (supplementary  volume  to  the  great  work  published  in  Vienna  in  1892), 
PI.  22. 

2 W.  von  Bode,  V orderasiatische  Kniipfteppiche , 2nd  ed.,  Fig.  5;  Martin,  O.C.,  Figs. 
118,  119. 

^ Bode,  Vorderas.  Kniipfteppiche,  2nd  ed..  Fig.  12  ; Martin,  0.(7.,  Fig.  85  ; Vienna, 
O.O.,  PI.  62. 

^ Illustrated  in  colours  in  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  PI.  15. 

28 


PERSIA 


boats  filled  with  figures^  and  a man  apparently  drowning  among  the 
fishes,^  The  clue  to  this  subject  is  not  known ; the  boats  and  figures 
are  European*  Another  carpet  in  the  Reynolds  room  at  Knole  is  closely 
similar.  A thirds  belonging  to  Mr.  Lamm,  at  Naesby,  has  the  same 
scene  but  there  is  only  one  boat.^  Two  other  carpets  of  the  same  class 
are  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  and  the  Kunstgewerbe 
Museum,  Berlin.  Each  carpet  shows  a singular  2;ig2:ag  arrangement  of 
the  central  space,  with  floral  patterns  on  successive  grounds  of  different 
colours.  This  expanding  2;ig2:ag  form  of  ornamentation  is  to  be  found 
on  the  well-known  velvets  of  Kashan  in  Central  Persia. 

This  town  has  long  been  famous,  and  is  still,  for  its  carpets,  and  the 
theory  that  the  carpets  with  the  nautical  scenes  were  made  there  has  much 
in  its  favour.  Ye^d  also,  the  other  great  centre  of  velvet- weaving  in  Persia, 
made  carpets,  but  the  industry  there  in  modern  times  has  declined.^ 

In  considering  figure-subjects  on  carpets  the  remarkable  cope  of 
Persian  workmanship  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  should  be 
studied.  It  is  very  finely  knotted  in  silk,  like  a carpet,  with  details  in 
gold  and  silver  thread.  Representations  of  the  Annunciation  and  the 
Crucifixion  are  seen,  among  the  usual  floral  motives. 

The  description  of  the  famous  carpet  of  Chosroes  (see  p.  lo),  tells 
of  the  use  of  silk,  gold  and  silver,  and  even  jewels,  in  a floor-covering. 
It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  this  sumptuous  work  cannot  have 
been  a pile-carpet.  For  many  centuries  the  knotting  of  Oriental  carpets 
was  done  in  wool,  and  no  material  produces  a more  beautiful  pile-surface. 
When  costlier  threads  began  to  be  introduced,  a type  of  carpet  was  made 
which  attracts  the  collector  by  its  richness,  though  it  is  unsuitable  for 
placing  on  the  floor.  The  first  step  was  taken,  so  far  as  we  can  tell,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  Persian  state,  after  a 
long  period  of  alien  rule,  was  becoming  unified  under  the  native  Safidian 
dynasty.  The  epoch  was  marked  by  an  output  of  artistic  wares  on  a 
most  generous  scale,  as  the  museums  of  Europe  now  bear  witness.  The 
elaboration  of  carpet-patterns,  involving  the  tracing  of  delicate  curves 
and  minute  details,  called  for  a finer  texture,  and  this  necessitated  the 
use  of  a warp  at  once  thin  and  strong.  The  luxury  of  the  times  permitted 
the  employment  of  silk  for  the  purpose,  although  the  thread  formed 


^ R.  Cox,  L’Art  de  decorer  les  Tissus,  Paris,  1900,  PI.  52  ; Martin,  O.C.,  Fig.  149. 

2 Martin,  O.C.,  PI.  6. 

2 It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  there  is  no  technical  affinity  between  velvets 
and  carpets. 


29 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


only  the  foundation  of  the  fabric^  and  was  hidden  in  the  finished  texture. 
The  pile  was  still  entirely  of  woofi  the  warp  threads  on  which  the  knots 
were  made  and  the  weft  shoots  passed  through  to  keep  them  in  line  being 
alone  of  the  richer  material.  The  **  Ardabil  carpet,  of  the  year  1540, 
was  thus  woven.  The  next  step  seems  to  have  been  the  introduction 
of  gold  and  silver  threads,  sparingly  at  first,  for  details  of  the  pattern. 
As  the  use  of  metal  threads  was  gradually  extended  silk  was  substituted 
for  the  wool  of  the  pile,  until  at  last  carpets  were  made  entirely  of  silk 
on  a gold  or  silver  ground.  Wool  thus  disappeared  altogether  in  these 
sumptuous  carpets.  Sometimes  the  metal  threads  were  dispensed  with, 
and  the  material  used  was  silk  throughout.  The  evolution  was  com- 
pleted by  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Meanwhile  the  making  of 
woollen  carpets  went  on. 

The  seventeenth- century  carpets  woven  entirely  in  silk,  with  metal 
threads  for  the  ground,  have  for  long  been  the  subject  of  conflicting 
views.  Attention  was  first  drawn  to  the  problem  of  their  provenance 
at  the  time  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878.  A very  fine  example,  the 
property  of  Prince  Czartoryski,  was  then  shown  in  the  Salle  polonaise 
of  the  Palais  du  Trocadero.^  The  ground  of  this  carpet  was  of  gold 
and  silver  thread,  not  knotted  but  wrought  into  the  warps  by  a method 
analogous  to  tapestry.  The  design,  of  palmettes  and  floral  stems,  quite 
Persian  in  character  though  arranged  in  a somewhat  formal  manner, 
was  knotted  by  the  ordinary  method  in  coloured  silks.  In  the  middle, 
and  again  at  each  corner,  was  the  coat-of-arms  of  the  owner's  family. 
The  European  heraldry,  associated  with  the  unfamiliar  materials  of  the 
carpet,  raised  doubts  in  the  minds  of  the  experts  of  the  day  as  to  its  Oriental 
origin,  and  the  theory  was  advanced  that  it  was  the  work  of  a member 
of  a well-known  family  of  weavers  established  in  Poland,  Madziarski 
by  name.  The  appellation  of  ''  Polish,"  given  to  carpets  of  this  class 
in  consequence,  clung  to  them  for  many  years.  Doubts  afterwards 
arose,  which  were  strengthened  when  it  became  clear  that  the  weaving 
establishment  of  the  first  of  the  Mad^arski  was  not  in  operation  early 
enough.  But  the  theory  served  a good  purpose,  for  when  its  foundation 
was  seen  to  be  insecure  an  incentive  was  given  to  further  investigation. 
M.  T.  Krygowski,  writing  in  the  Orientalisches  Archiv,^  quoted  an 
inventory  of  a member  of  the  household  of  King  Albert  of  Prussia,  made 

^ E.  Guichard  and  A.  Darcel,  Tapisseries  decoratives  du  Garde-Meuble,  1877,  PI.  94. 
It  is  now  in  the  Czartoryski  Museum  at  Cracow. 

2 II,  1911-12,  pp.  70,  106. 


30 


PERSIA 


in  1578,  in  which  three  Polish  carpets  are  mentioned,  and  another  of 
the  Treasury  of  Prince  Ostrogski  in  Dubno,  of  the  year  1616,  with  an 
entry  of  a Polish  carpet  inwrought  with  gold.  He  also  showed  that 
there  was  a silk  factory  in  Poland  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  All  this  is  useful,  but  so  far  it  does  not  involve  the  assump- 
tion that  carpets  like  Prince  C2:artoryski's  are  Polish. 

The  Poles,  like  the  Russians,  always  had  a liking  for  rich  Oriental 
stuffs,  and  many  must  have  been  imported.  So  far  as  Mad2;iarski^s 
weaving  establishments  are  concerned,  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  ever 
made  carpets.  The  first  weaver  of  the  family,  John,  was  established 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  at  Sluck.  The  discovery 
that  his  signature  to  an  agreement  with  Prince  Rad2;iwill,  for  conducting 
a **  Persian  **  factory  and  teaching  Persian  art,  was  in  the  Armenian  language, 
lent  colour  to  the  theory  that  he  was  an  immigrant  weaver  of  carpets. 
It  appears,  however,  that  the  name  Mad^iarski  means  Magyar,""  and 
it  is  surmised  that  the  weaver"s  father  may  have  lived  in  Hungary,  whence 
he  would  have  been  carried  as  a prisoner  to  Stambul  by  a raiding-party 
of  Turks.  It  was  from  Stambul  that  John  Mad2;iarski  smuggled  the  first 
weaving  appliances  in  pieces  into  Poland.  He  wove  girdles  and  brocades 
of  silk  and  gold  and  silver  after  Persian  models.^ 

It  is  beyond  dispute  that  carpets  woven  in  gold,  silver  and  silk  were 
made  in  Persia.  These  are  the  materials  of  the  famous  Schonbrunn 
carpet  already  described  (p.  16).  The  French  traveller  Jean  Baptiste 
Tavernier,  as  Dr.  Sarre  points  out,®  saw  ""  rich  carpets  in  gold  and  silk  "" 
in  the  Royal  Palace  at  Ispahan  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Rather  earlier  than  the  date  of  Tavernier "s  journey,  carpets  of  these 
materials  arrived  in  Venice  direct  from  Persia. 

Four  fine  silk  and  gold  carpets  are  still  preserved  in  the  Treasury 
of  St.  Mark"s  at  Venice.  There  is  satisfactory  evidence  that  three,  at 
least,  were  presented  to  the  Doge  by  Shah  Abbas  the  Great  of  Persia. 
An  embassy  from  the  Shah,  arriving  at  Venice  in  1603,  brought  a carpet 
in  silk  and  gold  and  silver,  with  the  suggestion  that  the  church  treasure 
should  be  displayed  upon  it  at  the  time  of  the  annual  exhibitions  to  the 
public.  In  1622  the  Persian  ambassador  brought  two  more.® 

^ There  is  a collection  of  these  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  one  having  Madziar- 
ski’s  name.  Others  were  shown  at  the  Munich  Exhibition  of  Muhammadan  art  in  1912 
{Meisterwerke  Muham.  Kunst,  PI.  222). 

2 Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  p.  3. 

^ G.  Berchet,  La  repubblica  di  Venezia  e la  Persia  (Turin,  1865).  See  A.  Pasini, 
Tesoro  di  8.  Marco  in  Venezia,  Venice,  1885-6,  Pis.  77,  89-92. 

31 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


A beautiful  silk  and  gold  carpet  is  in  the  Royal  Palace  at  Stockholm. 
Like  the  Austrian  Emperor's,  it  has  a **  hunting  " subject,  but  much 
simplified.  The  huntsmen  are  afoot — some  struggling  with  lions, 
and  others  carrying  slain  bears  on  their  shoulders.  There  are  also  deer, 
antelopes  and  other  animals.  The  colours  are  full  and  deep.  The 
crimson  ground  is  relieved  by  a large  central  panel  and  spandrels  in  gold 
thread.  There  is  a wide  pale  yellowish  border,  with  an  inner  and  outer 
stripe,  the  former  black  and  the  other  crimson.^  The  famous  Coron- 
ation carpet  " of  the  Danish  royal  house  is  kept  at  Rosenborg  Castle, 
Copenhagen.  The  ground  is  entirely  of  gold  thread,  producing  an  effect  of 
great  richness.  The  pattern  consists  of  floral  stems,  palmettes,  arabesques 
and  cloud-bands  in  silk  pile  with  touches  of  silver  thread.^  Both  these 
carpets  have  been  in  Scandinavia  since  the  seventeenth  century.  They 
were  probably  brought  by  embassies  from  the  East,  but  there  is  no  precise 
record. 

During  the  seventeenth  century  large  numbers  of  carpets  in  silk 
pile,  mostly  with  gold  and  silver  thread  as  well,  were  made.  The  patterns 
show  interminable  variations  of  floral  stems,  palmettes  and  arabesques, 
with  occasional  additions  of  cloud-bands.  A common  form  of  border  is 
the  counterchange  cresting.  There  is  often  a liberal  range  of  colour,  with 
pale,  pure  tones  predominating.  Pinks  and  pale  greens  are  favourites, 
with  deep  blue  sometimes  to  give  emphasis.  Undoubtedly  the  silk 
carpets  have  faded  more  than  the  woollen  ones,  but  the  contrasts  aimed 
at  seem  to  be  rather  that  between  metal  and  colour  than  between  one 
colour  and  another. 

An  example  of  the  best  kind,  the  property  of  the  royal  house  of 
Saxony,  is  reproduced  in  Plate  24.^  The  ground  of  the  middle  is  gold, 
and  of  the  border  silver.  The  colours  are  mostly  pale  in  tone ; the 
dark  parts  conspicuous  in  the  reproduction  are  deep  blue.  The  Duke 
of  Buccleuch  possesses  a very  similar  carpet. 

^ There  is  an  excellent  coloured  illustration  in  Martin,  O.C.,  PI.  5 (half-tone  reproduc- 
tion of  the  whole,  PI.  4).  The  crimson  is  a little  deeper  than  there  shown,  and  the  border 
paler.  The  carpet  is  large,  measuring  rather  more  than  18  feet  long  by  9 ft.  4 in.  wide. 
It  is  very  finely  knotted  ; Martin  computes  that  there  are  20  million  knots. 

2 Reproduced  in  Martin,  O.C.,  Pis.  7,  8.  The  attribution  to  Persia  of  the  four  embroi- 
dered carpets  in  silk  and  gold  thread  at  Rosenborg  Castle,  also  illustrated  by  Martin  (Plates 
11-14)  and  considered  by  him  to  have  been  brought  from  Persia  with  the  Coronation  carpet, 
hardly  carries  conviction.  The  Chinese  motives  are  too  true  to  type,  and  the  Persian  motives 
look  like  the  work  of  an  imitator.  Their  appearance  strongly  suggests  an  Indo-Chinese 
origin. 

^ Reproduced  in  colours  in  Vienna,  0.(7.,  PI.  46. 

32 


PERSIA 


There  is  a good  example,  though  incomplete,  in  the  Salting  Collection 
at  South  Kensington,^  with  floral  and  palmette  ornament,  and  an  inter- 
laced border,  on  gold  and  silver  grounds*  This  carpet  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  one  of  those  in  the  Treasury  of  St.  Mark’s,  Venice.  Other 
specimens  are  to  be  found  in  the  principal  museums  of  Europe  and  America, 
and  in  the  possession  of  wealthy  collectors.  Though  very  sumptuous, 
they  are  not  altogether  satisfactory  as  carpets.  They  are  unsuitable  for 
placing  on  the  floor,  and  the  effect  of  richness  is  overdone.  Although 
it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  they  were  not  made  in  Poland,  there  is 
still  some  mystery  about  their  place  of  origin.  They  are  not  always 
entirely  true  to  the  Persian  tradition  of  carpet-design.  There  can  be 
no  doubt,  however,  that  some  were  made  in  Persia.  Perhaps,  when 
more  is  known  about  carpet-making  in  India,  evidence  may  be  forth- 
coming that  the  manufacture  was  taken  there  from  Persia.  Wherever 
the  weaving  was  done,  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  carried  on  very 
long.  This  sumptuous  manufacture  appears  to  have  died  out  before 
the  end  of  the  century  which  saw  its  rise.  A carpet  in  silk  only,  without 
metal  threads,  belonging  to  the  Gobelins  Museum  is  reproduced  in 
Plate  25.  The  central  quatrefoil  is  green  and  the  spandrels  white.  The 
rest  of  the  middle  space  is  red.  The  wide  border  is  yellow,  with  a red 
outer  and  blue  inner  band. 

Before  returning  to  the  later  woollen  carpets  of  Persia,  reference 
may  be  made  to  another  type,  woven  in  the  same  materials  as  those  just 
described,  but  by  the  tapestry  process.  The  thin  and  delicate  texture 
may  perhaps  account  for  the  small  number  now  known  to  exist — hardly 
more  than  a dozen  altogether. 

Carpets  of  this  class,  in  silk,  gold  and  silver,  are  occasionally  enlivened 
with  human  or  animal  forms.  A fine  example,  with  animals  attacking 
one  another,  besides  grotesque  Chinese  dragons  and  phoenixes,  is  in  the 
Royal  Bavarian  Collection  at  Munich.^ 

The  colours  used  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  silk  pile-carpets,  but 
the  different  texture  produces  a much  harder  effect,  more  like  mosaic- 
work. 

The  best  known  example,  and  one  of  the  most  interesting,  is  in  the 
Louvre  (Plate  26).  A pointed  oval  in  the  middle  contains  a representa- 

^ Reproduced  in  colours  in  Vienna,  O.C.,  PI.  96.  The  statement,  published  at  the  time 
of  its  exhibition  at  Vienna  in  1891,  that  heraldry  was  represented  upon  it  was  incorrect  ; 
it  is  still  repeated. 

2 Munich,  Meisterwerke,  PI.  55. 


33 


D 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


tion  of  a horseman  fighting  a monstrous  serpent — evidently  meant  for 
the  Persian  national  hero  Rustam^  on  his  horse  Reksh,  encountering  the 
serpent  while  on  his  way  to  deliver  the  King  Ky-Kaoos  from  captivity 
in  Mazanderan,  The  story^  taken  from  the  Shah-Namah^  the  national 
epic  of  Persia^  may  be  given  in  the  words  of  Sir  John  Malcolm,  In 
the  middle  of  the  night  a monstrous  serpent,  seventy  yards  in  length, 
came  out  of  its  hiding-place,  and  made  at  the  hero,  who  was  awakened 
by  the  neighing  of  Reksh ; but  the  serpent  had  crept  back  to  its  hiding- 
place,  and  Roostem,  seeing  no  danger,  abused  his  faithful  horse  for  disturb- 
ing his  repose.  Another  attempt  of  the  serpent  was  defeated  in  the 
same  way ; but  the  monster  had  again  concealed  himself,  Roostem 
lost  all  patience  with  Reksh,  whom  he  threatened  to  put  to  death  if  he 
again  awakened  him  by  any  such  unseasonable  noises.  The  faithful 
steed,  fearing  his  master's  rage,  but  strong  in  his  attachment,  instead 
of  neighing  when  the  serpent  again  made  his  appearance,  sprung  upon 
it  and  commenced  a furious  contest ! Roostem,  hearing  the  noise,  started 
up  and  joined  in  the  combat.  The  serpent  darted  at  him,  but  he  avoided 
it,  and,  while  his  noble  horse  seized  their  enemy  by  the  back,  the  hero 
cut  off  its  head  with  his  sword,"  ^ The  spandrels  contain  illustrations 
of  the  old  Arabian  love-story  of  Laila  and  Majnun — the  scene  where 
Laila  visits  the  poor  poet  in  the  desert,^ 

Three  carpets  of  this  kind  were  lent  by  the  King  of  Bavaria  to  the 
Exhibition  of  Muhammadan  Art  at  Munich  in  1910,  One  of  them  has 
in  the  middle  a shield-of-arms,  misunderstood  by  the  weaver,  but  sup- 
posed to  be  intended  for  those  of  a Polish  princess  married  in  1642  at 
Warsaw,^  Another  shows  the  usual  hunting  scene — men  on  horseback 
and  on  foot  attacking  wild  animals.  Garden  scenes  fill  the  spandrels, 
with  figures  by  a stream.  In  the  border  winged  attendants  are  playing 
music  or  offering  fruit  to  a winged  prince  seated  on  a throne,  and  the 
middle  panel  contains  other  winged  figures.  The  third  carpet  has  a 
conventional  floral  pattern.  An  example  with  a pattern  of  arabesques, 
floral  stems  and  cloud-bands  is  in  the  collection  of  the  King  of  Saxony,* 
In  the  later  woollen  carpets  of  Persia  the  floral  types  survive  almost 
alone.  Subjects  with  figures  and  animals  are  not  common,  and  when 
they  again  achieve  popularity  during  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
^ Sketches  of  Persia,  1828,  ch.  xii. 

2 Another  representation  of  this  story,  on  a carpet  in  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs, 
Paris,  has  already  been  mentioned  (p.  28). 

^ Meisterwerke,  Munich,  PL  60.  See  also  Pis.  61,  62. 

^ Vienna,  O.G.,  PL  30. 


34 


PERSIA 


the  effects  aimed  at  are  more  naturalistic  if  less  happy.  The  varieties 
of  floral  patterns  are  almost  endless.  While  some  tend  towards  the 
direct  imitation  of  natural  life/  others  show  a more  or  less  formal  arrange- 
ment of  palmettes  and  stems  covering  the  whole  ground,  A fragment 
of  a carpet  reproduced  in  Plate  27A,  made  in  the  seventeenth  century^ 
is  of  the  latter  class.  It  shows  the  usual  red  colour  of  the  central  panel 
and  the  dark  blue  border,  A more  elaborate  example,  probably  made 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  is  in  the  Kunstgewerbe  Museum  at 
Leipzig  (Plate  28),  A further  stage  in  the  formalizing  of  the  pattern  is 
shown  in  Plate  29,  At  last  it  breaks  up  into  a kind  of  colour-mosaic, 
often  effective  enough,  but  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  an  organic  and 
intelligible  design  (Plate  27B), 

The  later  stages  of  another  Persian  type,  already  spoken  of  as  associated 
with  Armenia,  may  be  traced  in  Plate  20A,  where  the  long  leaf-forms 
covered  with  floral  motives  dominate  the  whole  pattern ; and  in  Plates 
132A  and  134,  where  old  motives  may  still  be  traced.  The  double 
prayer- carpet  reproduced  in  Plate  30B  belongs  to  a class  of  which  few 
examples  are  known.  Knotted  prayer- carpets  are  unusual  in  Persia, 
such  articles  being  mostly  made  of  cotton,  either  embroidered  or  printed. 

The  type  of  pattern  in  which  the  design  is  composed  entirely  of 
palmettes  and  floral  stems,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  cloud-bands 
(Plates  27  and  28),  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  all.  It  is  ascribed  to  the 
province  of  Herat,  now  united  to  Afghanistan,  though  under  Persian 
rule  during  the  flourishing  days  of  carpet-weaving.  Early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  province  had  the  reputation  of  making  the  best  carpets 
in  Persia  (see  p,  39),  The  capital  city,  Herat,  was  the  chief  centre 
of  the  manufacture.  The  industry  flourished  there  until  the  desolation 
of  the  province  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1731,  when  many  weavers  were  trans- 
ported to  the  western  provinces.  Although  Herat  never  recovered, 
carpet-weaving  did  not  entirely  cease,  and  it  is  still  carried  on  there  at 
the  present  time.  There  is  evidence  that  such  carpets  reached  England 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  King  James  I is  seen  standing  on  one 
of  them  in  a State  portrait,  attributed  to  Vansomer,  at  Hampton  Court, 
They  are  also  represented  in  pictures  of  the  Netherlands  and  Spain  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

The  carpets  of  Kirman  have  already  been  noticed.  The  French 
traveller  Chardin,  who  visited  Persia  in  the  second  half  of  the  seven- 

^ Example  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  No.  3 — 1887.  Another  in  Lyons  Museum. 
(R.  Cox,  L’ Art  de  decorer  les  Tissus,  Paris,  1900,  PI.  56.) 

35 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


teenth  century,  speaks  of  the  carpets  of  the  provinces  of  Kirman  and 
Seistan. 

Carpets  were  also  made  at  Ispahan,  though  apparently  not  in  great 
numbers.  There  is  little  justification,  as  a rule,  for  the  frequent  attribu- 
tion of  old  carpets  to  this  former  capital  of  Persia.  Other  well-known 
centres  of  carpet-weaving  in  Persia  have  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
pages.  There  is  much  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  locality  of  manufacture 
of  old  Persian  carpets,  and  attributions  should  be  accepted  with  reserve. 
It  is  seldom  that  they  bear  the  hall-marks  of  their  origin  in  the  unequivocal 
way  of  the  **  Ardabil  **  carpet. 

In  this  connexion  a carpet  belonging  to  Mr.  G.  Mounsey  merits  atten- 
tion (Plate  30A).  The  inscription  has  been  interpreted  by  Sir  Thomas 
Arnold  as  meaning  **  Jaushaqan  work  117  ** — apparently  locating  the 
carpet  as  Jushagan  work  of  the  year  1170  of  the  Muhammadan  Hegira 
(=A.D.  1757).  The  pattern  is  in  red  and  white.  The  three  elaborated 
fleurs-de-lys  betray  European  influence — perhaps  Florentine  rather  than 
French.  It  is  in  all  respects  a singular  carpet. 


36 


Chapter  III 


INDIA 

Abul  Fazl,  the  devoted  admirer  and  servant  of  the  great  Mogul 
Emperor  of  India,  Akbar  (1556-1605),  and  the  author  of  the  Institutes 
of  Akbar,  in  which  the  events  of  his  reign  are  set  down,  writes  as  follows : — 

**  His  Majesty  has  caused  carpets  to  be  made  of  wonderful  varieties 
and  charming  textures ; he  has  appointed  experienced  workmen,  who 
have  produced  many  master-pieces.  The  carpets  of  Iran  and  Turan 
are  no  more  thought  of,  although  merchants  still  import  carpets  from 
Goskhan,  Khu2;istan,  Kirman  and  Sab2rwar.  All  kinds  of  carpet-weavers 
have  settled  here,  and  drive  a^  flourishing  trade.  These  are  found  in 
every  town,  but  especially  in  Agrah,  Fathpur  and  Labor.''  ^ 

In  this  account  we  have  the  record  of  the  real  beginning  of  carpet- 
knotting  in  India.  It  is  not  difficult  to  suggest  a reason  why  India  was 
late  in  the  field.  Pile- carpets  were  devised  to  meet  the  needs  of  colder 
climates  than  that  of  India,  and  in  such  climates  suitable  wool  for  making 
them  can  be  more  easily  grown.  Before  Akbar's  time  the  floor-coverings 
in  India  would  have  been  for  the  most  part  the  cotton  daris  or  tapestry- 
mats  such  as  are  still  made  and  used.  The  implication  in  Abul  Fail's 
chronicle  that  before  Akbar's  reign  Persia  and  Turkestan  Iran  and 
Turan  ")  provided  such  pile-carpets  as  were  required  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  wealth  and  luxury  is  confirmed  from  other  sources.  Even 
when  the  new  Indian  factories  were  started,  their  output  did  not  meet 
all  needs.  Persia  still  continued  to  send  supplies.  Abul  Fa2;l  says  they 
came  from  Jushagan  (near  Ispahan),  Khuzistan  (S.W.  Persia),  Kirman 
(S.E.  Persia)  and  Sab2;war  (in  Khorassan,  N.E.  Persia),  places  where 
carpets  have  continued  to  be  woven  down  to  the  present  day. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  was  a small  export  trade  in  Indian  carpets 
which  began,  if  not  in  the  reign  of  Akbar  himself,  at  any  rate  in  that  of 
his  successor.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  number 
sent  out  of  the  country  must  have  been  considerable. 

^ The  Ain  i Akbari  by  Abul  Fazl  ‘Allahmi,  translated  by  H.  Blochmann,  Calcutta, 
1873,  Vol.  I,  p.  55.  He  goes  on  to  give  particulars  of  prices  and  sizes  in  the  Imperial  Work- 
shops. The  writer  was  born  in  1551,  and  died  in  1602. 

37 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


In  spite  of  the  labours  of  such  competent  authorities  as  Colonel 
Hendley^  Vincent  Robinson^  Sir  C.  Purdon  Clarke  ^ and  others^  the  subject 
of  Indian  carpets  still  offers  a field  for  study  and  investigation.  Besides 
the  valuable,  but  somewhat  equivocal,  witness  of  Akbar's  chronicler,  there 
is  the  account  of  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  the  first  English  ambassador  to  the 
Mogul  Court,  who  arrived  in  India  in  1612,  when  Akbar^s  successor  Jahangir 
was  on  the  throne.  He  states  that  he  saw  Persian  carpets  spread  before 
the  Emperor  on  the  festival  of  the  New  Year,  and  he  records  a promise 
of  Jahangir  to  send  Persian  carpets  to  England.  That  the  ambassador 
took  pains  to  discriminate  between  Persian  and  Indian  carpets  may  be 
doubted.^ 

So  far  as  actually  existing  specimens  of  the  seventeenth  century  are 
concerned  we  have  chiefly  those  in  the  palace  of  the  Maharaja  at  Jaipur, 
so  fully  described  by  Col.  Hendley ; a few  similar  carpets  noted  as  being 
in  mosques  at  Berhampur  and  Bijapur,  besides  some  at  Ahmedabad ; 
the  Girdlers^  Company's  carpet ; the  Fremlin  " carpet ; and  a number 
of  others  scattered  about  the  world  which  are  ascribed,  on  one  plea  or 
another,  to  the  factories  started  by  Akbar. 

The  most  characteristic  of  the  carpets  at  Jaipur  seem  to  be  certainly 
Indian,  though  not  of  Akbar's  time.  The  design  of  these  represents 
rows  of  flowering  plants  each  delineated  separately  and  entire  to  the  roots 
as  if  planted  in  a garden,  or  else  set  in  the  interstices  of  a trellis  as  though 
climbing.  They  were  brought  to  the  Treasury  at  Jaipur  from  the  old 
Palace  at  Amber  near  by,  about  the  year  1875.  Col.  Hendley,  who  examined 
the  old  tickets  upon  them,  points  out  that  some  are  described  as  Lahore 
carpets,  and  that  the  dates,  where  given,  are  not  earlier  than  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  though  it  is  not  clear  whether  such  dates  are 
those  of  manufacture  or  of  the  inventories.  The  shapes  of  some  are 
unusual.  One  is  circular  and  others  have  a polygonal  inset  contour  on 
one  side.  These  have  been  ascertained  to  have  been  specially  made 
for  an  apartment  of  the  palace  at  Amber  built  in  1630.  In  view  of  this 
evidence,  it  seems  quite  safe  to  assign  the  carpets  of  this  class  at  Jaipur 


^ Colonel  T.  H,  Hendley,  C.I.E,,  Asian  Carpets  : Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Century 
Designs  jrom  the  Jaipur  Palaces,  London,  1905.  V.  Robinson,  Eastern  Carpets,  London, 
1882.  Oriental  Carpets,  Vienna,  1892-4.  F.  R.  Martin,  Oriental  Carpets,  Vienna,  1908. 

2 The  language  of  these  days  took  little  heed  of  geographical  precision  in  matters  of 
the  kind.  The  minutes  of  the  Girdlers’  Company,  of  1634,  describes  the  carpet  then  given 
to  them  by  Sir  Robert  Bell  as  a Turkey  carpet,  though  it  was  known  to  have  come  from 
India.  Later  in  the  century,  the  terms  Chinese,  Japanese  and  Indian  are  applied  almost 
indiscriminately  to  artistic  imports  from  the  East. 

38 


INDIA 


to  the  Indian  looms  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Two  of  the  carpets 
from  Jaipur^  with  flowers  on  a red  ground^  have  recently  been  brought 
to  England,  They  are  reproduced  on  Plate  31,  The  further  claim  which 
has  been  put  form^ard  that  all  existing  carpets  showing  such  patterns 
are  Indian  seems  more  open  to  question,^  If  that  be  so^  then  very  trouble- 
some points  must  arise  in  regard  to  velvets^  brocades  and  other  works  of 
art  with  plant  designs  treated  in  the  same  way.  In  fact,  these  motives 
were  long  popular  with  Persian  craftsmen.  They  may  even  have  been 
carried  into  India  by  the  Persian  weavers  who,  as  all  authorities  agree, 
worked  in  Akbar's  factories, 

A fine  carpet  showing  plant-forms  similar  to  those  on  the  carpets 
from  Amber,  and  done  in  similar  colours,  is  in  the  Salting  Collection, 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  (Plate  32),  It  will  be  seen  that  the  plants 
are  each  in  a separate  compartment.  This  example  is  incomplete.  An- 
other in  the  Diisseldorf  Museum  is  probably  part  of  the  same  carpet. 
It  has  a broad  border  of  floral  forms  resembling  the  middle  pattern. 

Another  class  of  carpets  in  the  Jaipur  treasury  shows  palmettes  and 
floral  stems  disposed  in  a somewhat  formal  manner  on  a red  ground, 
with  a wide  border  of  palmettes  and  leaves  on  dark  blue  or  green.  Some- 
times there  are  hunting-animals  in  the  middle  field,  and  occasionally 
Chinese  phoenixes  and  dragons.  Such  designs  are  obviously  modifications 
of  the  finer  and  freer  patterns  of  Persia  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
scheme  of  colouring  often  has  a quality  of  its  own  in  warmth  and  depth ; 
but  are  we  to  say  that  these  phenomena  were  peculiar  to  India  s'  Until 
a score  of  years  ago,  these  carpets  were  all  attributed  to  Herat,  and 
the  attribution  to  that  celebrated  centre  of  Persian  carpet-weaving  must 
still  be  allowed  to  have  been  often  correct, 

Olearius,  who  went  to  Persia  with  the  embassy  of  the  Duke  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp  about  1639,  says  that  in  the  city  of  Herat  the  most  hand- 
some carpets  of  Persia  were  then  made,^  At  the  same  time,  it  is  a plausible 
theory  that  if  any  of  the  carpets  actually  made  under  Akbar  exist  to- 
day, some  of  this  class  are  among  them,  Herat  was  favourably  situated 
for  transporting  either  its  carpet-weavers  or  their  products  to  Akbar's 
Court. 

The  most  completely  authenticated  of  all  Indian  carpets  has  already 
been  briefly  referred  to — that  in  the  possession  of  the  Girdlers"  Company 

^ F.  R.  Martin,  Oriental  Carpets,  p.  89. 

2 Adami  Olearii,  Reisebeschreibung  nach  Muskow  und  Persien,  Hamburg,  1696.  Quoted 
by  F.  R.  Martin,  O.C.,  p.  69. 


39 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


of  London  (Plate  33),  The  elucidation  of  the  history  of  this  carpet 
a few  years  ago  threw  a new  light  on  the  problem  of  Indian  carpet-weaving. 
It  measures  about  8 yards  in  length  by  2,^  yards  in  width.  The  coat- 
of-arms  and  motto  of  the  Company  are  represented  in  the  middle.  At 
each  end  is  a shield  azure,  an  eagle  displayed  argent,  in  chief  three  fleurs- 
de-lys  or.  Between  each  of  these  and  the  central  coat  is  seen  a bale  of 
goods  with  the  monogram  R.B.  and  a merchant's  mark.  The  researches 
in  the  books  of  the  Company  and  in  the  records  of  the  India  Office  recovered 
all  material  facts.  The  arms  at  the  ends  were  identified  as  those  borne 
by  Robert  Bell,  master  of  theGirdlers'  Company  in  1634,  and  a director 
of  the  East  India  Company.  The  records  of  the  India  Office  showed 
that  the  carpet  was  made  for  him  in  the  royal  factory  at  Lahore,  and 
those  of  the  Company  recorded  the  gift  by  him  in  the  same  year.^  The 
middle  of  the  carpet  is  red,  the  wide  border  being  in  dark  blue.  The 
identification  of  the  Girdlers'  carpet  helped  towards  that  of  another 
carpet  which  left  England  for  America  some  years  ago.  A coloured 
illustration  in  Vincent  Robinson's  Eastern  Carpets  preserves  a record 
of  the  design  (Plate  34).  The  middle  has  a pattern  somewhat  like  that 
of  the  Girdlers'  carpet,  but  with  the  addition  of  hunting  animals  among 
the  stems.  The  wide  border  is  blue,  with  the  arms  of  the  Kentish  family 
of  Fremlin  at  intervals  with  palmettes  and  stems  between.^  The  points 
of  resemblance  between  this  carpet  and  the  Girdlers'  prompted  a reference 
to  the  published  literature  of  the  East  India  Company,  where  the  name 
was  found  to  occur  several  times.  The  conclusion  that  a member  of 
this  family  arranged  for  the  carpet  to  be  made  in  India  through  the  agents 
of  the  company  seems  fairly  safe. 

There  is  little  else  but  conjecture  to  aid  in  carrying  farther  forward 
the  record  of  the  factories  in  India  founded  under  Akbar.  An  interesting 
fragment  in  the  collection  of  Dr.  Friedrich  Sarre  of  Berlin  is  shown  to  be 
Indian  by  the  pattern  of  two  fighting  elephants  ridden  by  their  mahouts.^ 
Two  other  fragments — one  in  the  possession  of  Dr.  Roden  of  Frankfurt, 
and  the  other  formerly  in  the  collection  of  M.  Jeuniette,  and  now  in  the 

^ Information  collected  and  published  by  the  Company.  See  also  Art  Workers'  Quar- 
terly, Vol.  Ill,  July,  1904,  p.  97  ; T.  H.  Hendley,  Asian  Carpets,  1905,  p.  8. 

2 Or  Framlingham,  of  Hartlip,  Kent.  Gules,  a chevron  between  three  close  helmets 
argent  plumed  or.  Crest,  an  elephant  or,  armed  gules,  gorged  with  a chaplet  vert.  The  arms 
were  identified  by  Mr.  Van  de  Put,  and  first  published  in  The  Times  special  Textile  number, 
June,  1913.  In  V.  Robinson’s  book  (London,  1882,  PI.  9)  the  carpet  is  attributed  to  the 
weavers  of  Alcaraz  in  Spain. 

^ Illustrated  by  Martin,  0.(7.,  Fig.  235.  His  attribution  of  the  carpet  to  the  sixteenth 
century  seems  rather  too  early. 


40 


INDIA 


Louvre,  have  fantastic  patterns  of  heads  of  elephants,  lions,  oxen  and 
horses  with  diminutive  serpentine  bodies,  and  floral  sprays  interspersed. 
They  are  probably  of  the  seventeenth  century,  contemporary  with  Dr. 
Sarre^s  piece.  A singular  carpet  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  at  Boston 
in  America  has,  in  a medley  of  motives,  a hunting-cheetah  driven  to  the 
chase  on  a bullock  wagon  covered  with  a brightly-coloured  textile,  to  which 
it  is  chained.^  This  recalls  Abul  Fail's  account  of  Akbar's  hunting 
expeditions,  where  he  says  that  the  hunting  leopards  got  Jushagan  carpets 
to  sit  on,  and  even  had  carts  made  for  them.^  The  French  traveller 
Francois  Bernier,  who  visited  India  in  1656-68,  refers  to  the  practice 
of  keeping  the  hunting-leopards  chained  on  a small  car. 

The  importation  of  carpets  into  England  through  the  East  India 
Company  appears  to  have  been  considerable  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Great  families,  notably  that  of  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch,  whose  ancestor 
the  Duke  of  Montagu  was  a director  of  the  Company,  still  possess  fine 
specimens.  They  are  mostly  of  the  **  palmette  ''  or  Herati type. 
Whether  any  were  brought  into  India  from  Persia  it  is  difficult  to  say, 
but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  Company  traded  in  Persian  goods, 
thus  supplanting  the  more  difficult  route  of  communication  with  Persia 
established  by  the  English  Mucovy  Company  by  way  of  Archangel  in 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

The  weaving  of  pile- carpets  in  India  appears  never  to  have  quite 
ceased  from  the  time  of  Akbar  onwards. 

The  types  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  varied.  On  the  one  hand 
there  are  the  sumptuous  silk  carpets  of  Warangul,  with  floral  patterns,  made 
about  the  middle  of  the  century ; on  the  other,  the  exceedingly  coarse 
wool  carpets,  with  animals,  birds  and  floral  forms,  of  Tanjore  and  Malabar. 
A carpet  made  at  Tanjore  in  the  Madras  Presidency  is  illustrated  in 
Plate  35.  Its  principal  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  design  is  typically 
Indian  in  character,  without  Persian  influence.  The  compartments 
enclosing  the  floral  sprays  are  red,  buff  and  pale  blue.  The  border  is 
white.  The  knotting  is  coarse  and  the  colours  are  dull. 

Soon  after  the  middle  of  the  century,  carpet-knotting  was  begun 
in  the  jails,  with  the  object  of  providing  useful  and  remunerative 
employment  for  those  detained  there.  This  object  was  to  some  degree 
attained.  The  scheme  had  another  aspect — whether  it  tended  to  raise 
or  depress  the  standard  of  the  industry  in  India.  That  question  need 

^ Martin,  O.C.,  Fig.  234. 

^ Blochmann,  Ain  i Akbari,  I,  p.  287. 

41 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 

not  be  discussed  here.  Most  of  the  jail-carpets  **  were 
old  patterns. 

The  cotton  pile-carpets  made  in  several  districts  of 
latter  half  of  the  last  century  are,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  unique. 


copied  from 
India  in  the 


42 


Chapter  IV 


TURKEY 

Beyond  all  question  the  best  carpets  in  the  world  are  the  Persian^ 
whether  the  point  of  view  taken  be  that  of  design,  colour,  or  craftsmanship* 
Little  imagination  is  needed  to  appreciate  the  skill  demanded  of  the 
weaver  in  keeping  a great  carpet  like  that  from  Ardabil  straight  and 
even  in  the  making,  and  to  give  it  a texture  which  should  outlast  five 
hundred  years  of  use*  Such  mastery  of  the  technicalities  of  the  craft 
is  often  combined,  as  in  that  carpet,  with  resourcefulness  in  design  and 
true  genius  for  colour*  Every  other  carpet-weaving  country  has  felt 
the  influence  of  Persia*  In  Asia  Minor  that  influence  prevailed  to  such 
a degree  that  it  almost  becomes  a question  whether  the  best  carpets  made 
there  should  properly  be  called  Turkish* 

This  designation  is  not  altogether  satisfactory  for  the  art  of  Asia 
Minor,  but  there  is  no  better  comprehensive  term.  Traces  of  the  native 
Turkish  art  of  their  old  home  in  Central  Asia  are  rare,  although  they 
are  sometimes  to  be  found  in  nomad  carpets.  The  art  was  the  outcome 
of  a more  advanced  civilization.  In  the  course  of  history,  successive 
waves  of  humanity  have  been  pressed  into  the  narrow  limits  of  Asia  Minor 
after  a fashion  which  may  be  compared,  in  another  element,  with  those 
bays  into  which  the  waters  of  the  ocean  rush  from  time  to  time  in  a tidal 
wave.  An  enumeration  of  the  races  represented  in  Asia  Minor  includes 
Turks,  Greeks,  Jews,  Persians,  Turcomans,  Tartars,  Yuruks,  Circassians, 
Armenians,  Nestorians,  Syrians,  Kurds,  Cossacks,  Bulgarians,  Arabs 
and  gypsies.  Not  all  these  people  are  carpet -weavers,  but  several  of 
them  are.  The  pressure  of  the  Mongolian  horsemen  which  set  the 
Seljuks  moving  westward,  and  after  them  the  Ottoman  Turks,  drove 
Persian  craftsmen  and  poets  to  seek  the  same  asylum,  and  the  latter 
brought  with  them  a proficiency  in  the  arts  of  which  the  Turks  were 
not  slow  to  take  advantage.  In  1514  the  conquest  of  Tabriz  was  effected 
by  the  Turkish  Sultan  Selim  I,  and  that  city  was  again  entered  by  his 
successor  Suleiman  I twenty  years  later.  Craftsmen  were  carried  away 
into  Asia  Minor  by  the  conquerors.  Some,  indeed,  have  attributed 

43 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


the  brilliant  height  attained  by  Turkish  art  in  the  sixteenth  century  to 
that  event. 

The  Turk  was  a Sunni — an  orthodox  and  literal  observer  of  the 
precepts  in  the  sacred  writings.  He  could  not  therefore  permit  the 
representation  of  figures  of  men  and  animals,  which  the  sectarian  Persian 
allowed.  But  for  this,  the  most  accomplished  of  the  carpets  of  Asia 
Minor  might  be  regarded  as  an  offshoot  of  Persian  art.  The  mixture 
of  races  in  Asia  Minor  finds  expression  in  a variety  of  types  often  having 
little  relation  one  to  another.  The  **  Turkey ''  carpets  used  in  Western 
Europe  during  the  last  five  centuries  are  the  work  of  the  uplands  of 
Anatolia  behind  the  port  of  Smyrna,  whence  so  many  were  shipped. 
For  a long  time  these  were  practically  the  only  pile-carpets  brought  to 
Europe.  The  relative  inaccessibility  of  Persia,  and  the  almost  insuperable 
difficulties  of  transport  rendered  the  Persian  carpets  practically  unknown 
until  the  seventeenth  century,  and  even  after  they  began  to  be  imported 
they  were  called  **  Turkey  ” carpets  like  the  rest. 

The  seafaring  communities  of  Italy  had  trading  settlements  dotted 
along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century.  With 
the  abandonment  of  these  posts  under  pressure  from  the  Ottoman  Turk 
during  the  course  of  the  fifteenth  century,  commercial  activity  was  not 
put  an  end  to.  A lively  trade  still  went  on  between  the  Venetians  and 
the  Turks.  The  Italian  traders  also  had  their  agents  in  the  countries 
of  Western  Europe,  and  by  such  means  the  carpets  were  obtained  which 
are  seen  represented  in  early  pictures.  The  carpets  of  Asia  Minor  first 
became  known  in  the  West  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  in  the  two 
following  centuries  they  were  imported  in  large  numbers.  Their  strange 
exotic  beauty  rendered  them  popular  at  once  with  the  painters,  who 
obviously  copied  them  with  much  fidelity.  These  pictorial  representations 
of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  have  greatly  simplified 
the  task  of  classification. 

The  first  essay  on  this  subject  was  contributed  by  Dr.  Julius  Lessing 
of  Berlin.  His  book,^  published  at  Berlin  in  1877,  reproduces  a series 
of  illustrations  in  colour  from  carpets  represented  in  paintings  by,  or 
attributed  to,  Jan  van  Eyck,  Memlinc,  Van  der  Goes,  Mabuse,  Holbein, 
Ghirlandajo,  Pinturicchio,  Montagna,  Moroni,  Girolamo  dai  Libri  and 
others. 

Most  later  writers  on  Oriental  carpets  have  either  made  use  of  Lessing^s 
work  or  made  further  comparisons  for  themselves.  The  subject  requires 
^ Alt  Orientalische  Tep'pichmuster  nach  Bildern  . . . des  XV-XVI  Jahrhundert. 

44 


TURKEY 


careful  handlings  for  Oriental  motives  often  have  a long  life,  and  similarities 
between  representations  in  old  pictures  and  actual  carpets  obviously  of 
far  more  modern  times  are  occasionally  quite  startling.  Even  these 
cases  afford  useful  evidence,  for  they  tend  to  confirm  the  conclusions 
made  on  various  grounds  that  the  old  painters  were  remarkably  true  to 
their  models,  and  that  the  origin  of  designs  still  in  use  must  be  traced 
to  a remote  past.  An  example  is  afforded  among  the  illustrations  in  the 
present  volume.  The  painting  at  Vienna  by  Hans  Memlinc  (Plate  36) 
shows  a carpet  with  a central  pattern  almost  identical  with  that  of  the 
carpet  reproduced  on  the  same  plate — yet  the  picture  is  of  the  fifteenth 
century  and  the  carpet  is  of  the  nineteenth.^  Relatively  few  carpets  of 
the  time  of  the  paintings  are  now  to  be  seen  in  the  land  of  their  origin, 
although  some  of  the  greater  mosques  contain  important  specimens. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  beyond  the  bounds  of  probability  that  a few 
carpets  depicted  by  the  European  artists  mentioned  above  are  actually 
in  existence  to-day.  Considerable  numbers  found  their  way  into  the 
churches  of  Italy,  where  infrequent  use  has  guarded  them  from  destruction. 
Many  have  been  sold  during  the  last  forty  years,  and  are  now  to  be  found 
in  the  museums  and  private  collections  of  Europe  and  America. 

The  earliest  Turkish  carpets  we  know  of  are  in  the  mosque  of 
Ala- ed- Din  at  Konia  (the  ancient  Iconium).  That  city  was  the  capital 
of  the  Seljuk  Sultans  of  Rum,  and  Dr.  Martin,  who  was  the  first  to  detect 
their  significance,  attributes  the  carpets  to  the  reign  of  the  sultan  whose 
name  the  mosque  bears  (a.d.  1219-36).  The  question  whether  they 
are  as  old  as  that  may  be  debatable,  but  there  need  be  no  hesitation  in 
ascribing  them  to  the  times  of  the  old  Seljuk  line  at  Konia,  before  it  was 
superseded  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  the  Ottomans,  whose  capital  was 
far  to  the  west  at  Brusa. 

There  are  four  carpets,  all  somewhat  dilapidated,  and  two  fragments. 
The  patterns  are  primitive  diapers  and  interlacings  of  geometrical  form, 
and  two  of  them  have  archaic  Kufic  lettering  in  the  borders.  The  colours 
are  chiefly  shades  of  blue  and  red,  and  yellow.^ 

^ A very  similar  carpet  is  reproduced  in  a French  romance  of  the  fifteenth  century 
at  Vienna,  Goeur  d’ Amour  epris,  Cod.  2597.  (See  Kunst  und  Kunsthandwerk,  V,  1902, 
P-  307-) 

2 Martin,  0.(7.,  PI.  30. 

Their  resemblance  to  the  heraldic  carpets  made  in  Spain  in  the  fifteenth  century  is 
quite  striking  (see  p.  68).  It  seems  likely  that  some  of  the  motives  of  the  Spanish  carpets 
were  borrowed  from  the  successors  of  these  Konia  carpets  in  Asia  Minor  which  have  since 
disappeared  entirely.  See  also  article  by  F.  Sarre  in  Kunst  und  Kunsthandwerk,  Vol.  X, 
1907,  p.  503. 


45 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


A carpet  preserving  a tradition  no  less  remote  is  here  illustrated 
(Plate  37A).  In  its  present  incomplete  state  it  shows  two  octagonal 
compartments,  each  filled  by  an  angular  and  disguised,  though 
unmistakable,  rendering  of  a Chinese  dragon  and  phoenix  in  red  and 
blue  on  a yellow  ground*  The  pattern  is  obviously  archaic,  and  the 
difficulty  of  assigning  a date  to  the  carpet  itself  is  considerable.  Dr. 
von  Bode,  who  obtained  this  carpet  many  years  ago  in  Rome,  has  pointed 
out  the  remarkable  similarity  to  the  pattern  of  a carpet  represented  in 
Domenico  di  Bartolo's  fresco  of  the  Marriage  of  the  Foundlings,'^ 
painted  between  the  years  1440  and  1444  in  the  Hospital  of  Sta  Maria 
della  Scala  at  Siena.  Animal  forms,  even  thus  disguised,  are  rare  in 
Turkish  carpets.  Restrictions  in  regard  to  such  representations  were 
not  so  rigidly  observed  under  the  Seljuks  as  under  the  later  Ottomans, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  tradition  of  this  carpet  goes  back  to  Seljuk 
times.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  such  Chinese  motives. 
They  found  their  way  to  Asia  Minor  in  the  first  instance  through  the 
Mongolian  conquests,  but  they  were  reinforced  afterwards  by  the 
immigrant  Persian  craftsmen.  However  early  in  origin  the  patterns 
may  be,  few  existing  carpets  from  Asia  Minor  were  actually  made  before 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  finest  in  texture  and  the  most  intricate  in 
design  of  all  Turkish  carpets  were  made  during  that  time.  Like  some 
of  the  contemporary  woollen  pile-carpets  of  Persia,  they  are  generally 
woven  on  silk  warps  to  secure  a closer  texture,  although  at  times  a fine 
woollen  warp  is  used.  They  show  such  uniformity  in  design  and  colouring 
that  it  seems  almost  beyond  doubt  that  all  were  the  work  of  a single  locality. 
Some  of  them  are  of  large  si2;e.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  factory 
was  an  Imperial  one,  and  this  seems  likely,  for  the  carpets  must  have 
been  too  costly  for  the  general  markets.^  The  location  is  not  known  ; 
perhaps  it  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Brusa,  the  Asiatic  capital.  The 
best  work  was  done  in  the  sixteenth  century,  although  some  examples 
appear  to  belong  rather  to  the  seventeenth.  The  patterns  are  floral 
and  very  gracefully  drawn,  with  roses,  carnations,  tulips,  irises  and 
hyacinths,  and  long  curving  leaves,  rendered  in  the  same  manner  as  on 
the  exquisite  painted  pottery  of  the  time  (see  Plate  38).  The  colouring 
of  the  ground  is  almost  always  a bright  crimson  of  a characteristic  tone, 
though  blue  is  occasionally  used.  There  is  often  a central  panel  and 

^ A later  Imperial  factory  was  situated  at  Hereke  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  at  a short  distance  both  from  Constantinople  and  Brusa.  A modern  Hereke 
carpet  is  reproduced  in  Plate  97. 


46 


TURKEY 


spandrels  in  dark  or  light  blue,  green,  yellow  or  white,  or  border-panels 
in  the  same  colours.  Floral  ornament,  contrasted  with  the  rest  of  the 
design  by  its  formal  character,  and  arabesques  generally  fill  these  panels. 
A carpet,  unfortunately  not  complete,  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
(Plate  39)  has  the  crimson  ground  with  a typical  pattern. 

Another  carpet  which  falls  within  the  same  group  is  illustrated  in 
Plate  40.  The  distribution  of  the  floral  stems  here  shown  is  unusual 
for  a carpet,  although  parallels  may  be  found  in  the  painted  tilework. 
The  ground  is  again  red.  The  salience  of  the  small  white  flowers  is 
due  to  the  use  of  cotton  instead  of  wool  for  those  parts,  giving  a dead 
white  in  place  of  the  softer  tones  of  the  wool. 

Several  examples  are  illustrated  in  colours  in  the  great  Austrian  book. 
Two  are  in  the  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry  at  Vienna,  one  in  the  museum 
at  Leipzig,  and  a fourth  in  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs  in  Paris.^ 
Another  in  the  last-named  collection  is  on  a blue  ground,  which  is  very 
exceptional.^ 

A few  prayer-carpets  of  this  class  are  known.  One,  in  the  Austrian 
Imperial  Collection,  was  shown  at  Vienna  in  1891,  and  again  at  Munich 
in  1910.  Two  more  were  shown  in  the  latter  exhibition.  The  first 
belongs  to  the  Kunstgewerbe  Museum,  Berlin,  and  the  second  to  Prince 
Liechtenstein.®  It  is  a point  which  may  not  be  entirely  without 
significance  that  two  of  these  prayer- carpets  have  borders  from  which 
those  most  frequently  seen  on  the  later  prayer- carpets  of  Ghiordes  (see 
Plate  53)  are  obviously  derived.  Thus  the  possibility  of  an  origin  in  the 
same  locality  is  suggested. 

A different  type  of  carpet  is  illustrated  in  Plate  41.  These  contrast 
so  forcibly  with  the  kind  just  described  that  it  seems  almost  beyond  belief 
that  both  should  have  been  made  in  the  same  part  of  the  world  at  the 
same  time.  The  knotting  is  coarser  and  of  another  kind  ; the  colouring 
is  simpler  and  quite  different  in  tone.  The  designs  are  stiff  and  formal 
where  the  others  are  free  and  natural,  and  the  motives  are  geometrical 
rather  than  floral.^  Persian  influence  is  strong  in  the  first  group.  In 


^ Vienna,  O.C.,  Pis.  40,  85,  15  and  68.  See  also  Martin,  0 C.,  Figs.  328-30. 

2 Reproduced  in  colours  in  Ancient  Oriental  Carpets,  Leipzig,  1906-8,  PI.  25.  See  also 
Martin,  O.C.,  Fig.  327. 

^ Oriental  Carpets,  PI.  14  ; Meisterwerke,  Munich,  Pis.  74,  75  ; Martin,  Fig.  331. 

^ Dr.  F.  Sarre,  in  an  illuminating  paper  on  early  Turkish  carpets  (Kunst  und  Kunst- 
handwerk,  X,  1907,  p.  513)  suggests  that  the  border  of  the  first  example  on  Plate  41  is  a 
modified  Kufic  inscription.  It  appears  rather  to  be  a counterchange  cresting  like  Plates 
ii8a  and  141. 


47 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


the  latter  the  type  of  design  is  Turkish,  and  in  modified  forms  its  continuity 
is  traceable  down  to  the  present  day.  Large  numbers  must  have  been 
exported  to  the  West,  The  two  in  question  were  both  obtained  in  Italy, 
and  such  carpets  are  not  now  found  in  Asia  Minor,  They  are  often  to 
be  seen  in  pictures  of  the  Italian,  Flemish  and  German  schools  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  Ghirlandajo,  Memlinc,  and  Holbein, 
among  others,  certainly  had  access  to  carpets  of  the  kind,^  There  is 
almost  a suggestion  of  primitive  austerity  in  these  large  and  uncom- 
promising geometrical  forms,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
are  descended  from  an  early  type.  Another  geometrical  type  popular 
with  these  painters  is  reproduced  on  Plate  42,  in  a carpet  belonging  to 
Mr,  George  Mounsey,  The  interlaced  border  associates  this  carpet 
also  with  the  well-known  rugs  showing  arabesques  in  the  middle  field 
(see  Plate  43B),  The  carpet  illustrated  in  Plate  37B  represents  a step 
towards  greater  freedom  of  design.  Small  shaped  panels  in  dark  blue 
on  a red  ground  are  distributed  over  the  surface. 

The  **  Oushak  ” carpet,  the  real  forerunner  of  the  **  Turkey  carpet  ** 
of  to-day,  was  much  in  demand  in  Western  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries.  The  name  is  derived  from  a town  situated  in 
the  middle  of  the  carpet-weaving  districts  of  the  Anatolian  uplands  some 
distance  due  east  of  Smyrna,  These  carpets  are  generally  of  convenient 
si^e  for  transport,  perhaps  6 ft,  wide  and  twice  as  long,  though  far  larger 
examples  are  sometimes  met  with.  The  colours  are  generally  brilliant 
and  pure  but  not  in  great  variety,  A succession  of  large  panels  occupies 
the  middle  space,  either  in  blue  on  red  or  red  on  blue ; sometimes  there 
are  two  shades  of  blue.  One  well-known  form  of  design  is  illustrated 
on  Plate  43A,  The  large  star-shaped  panels  are  dark  blue  and  the  ground 
is  red.  Carpets  of  this  type  are  to  be  found  in  pictures,  A well-known 
example  is  in  a painting  by  Paris  Bordone,  in  the  Academy  at  Venice, 
representing  the  Fisherman  restoring  the  lost  ring  to  the  Doge,  King 
Henry  VIII  stands  on  another  carpet  of  similar  style,  in  a portrait  at 
Belvoir  Castle,^  Sometimes  large  pointed-ogee  panels  are  substituted 
for  the  star-forms ; they  are  generally  placed  close  together,  with  half- 

^ A very  good  example  is  Holbein’s  great  painting  of  the  “ Amabassadors  ” in  the 
National  Gallery,  London  ; another  is  seen  in  a painting  by  Memlinc  in  the  same  gallery. 
Several  patterns  of  the  type  are  illustrated  in  J.  Lessing’s  Alt  Orientalische  Teppichmuster 
nach  Bildern  , . . des  XV-XV  IJahrh., Berlin,  1877  ; see  especially  Pis.  i,  19,  26  (Memlinc); 
9,  II  (Holbein)  ; 13,  14  (Ghirlandajo)  ; 21  (Anguissola). 

2 Connoisseur,  Vol.  VI,  1903,  p.  67.  This  shows  that  such  carpets  reached  England 
before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

48 


TURKEY 

panels  at  the  sides.  An  example  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
is  reproduced  (Plate  44),^ 

In  the  sixteenth  and  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  there 
was  a large  output  of  these  Oushak  carpets.  At  the  same  time, 
smaller  rugs  with  a class  of  pattern  of  their  own,  were  carried  to  Italy  in 
considerable  numbers.  These,  like  the  Oushak  carpets,  were  probably 
made  principally  for  export.  There  are  two  chief  kinds  of  design — 
one  in  which  the  middle  is  covered  with  repeating  arabesques  (Plate 
43B),  and  the  other  with  a plain  middle  space  relieved  only  with  a small 
central  ornament  and  spandrels  in  the  corners.  The  colour  of  the  ground 
is  generally  brick-red,  sometimes  blue.  Yellow  enters  largely  into  the 
pattern  as  a rule,  relieved  by  blue  and  white,  Chinese  cloud-bands  are 
not  unfrequently  used  in  the  borders,  repeated  at  close  intervals,  and 
occasionally  in  the  middle.  The  most  usual  border  is  the  conventionalized 
Kufic  lettering,  generally  interlaced.  The  arabesques  are  drawn  in  an 
angular  manner  and  closely  packed  to  cover  the  surface.  The  Kufic 
border  is  found  so  frequently  in  the  Italian,  Flemish  and  German  paintings 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  that  there  is  no  need  to  single 
out  examples.  The  arabesques,  too,  are  often  seen — more  especially 
in  the  paintings  of  the  Venetian  Lorenzo  Lotto,  The  Kufic  border 
continued  to  be  used  until  the  eighteenth  and  even  the  nineteenth  century 
with  little  change  (see  Plates  63  and  64), 

A small  carpet  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  obtained  from 
a church  in  Italy,  has  the  same  pattern  of  floral  ornament  and  cloud-bands 
carried  through  the  middle  and  the  border  alike.  The  ground  of  the 
middle  is  blue,  and  of  the  border  red. 

The  demand  for  these  carpets  by  the  Venetians  and  other  seafaring 
traders  calling  at  Smyrna  was  considerable.  Evidences  of  concessions  to 
Western  taste  may  be  seen  not  only  in  the  subdued  colouring,  but  also 
in  the  general  uniformity  of  shape  and  size  and  to  some  extent  in  the 
design,  A carpet  lent  by  Frau  Limburger  to  the  Munich  Exhibition  of 
1910  had  the  usual  yellow  and  blue  arabesques  covering  the  red  ground 
everywhere  except  in  the  top  left-hand  corner,  where  there  was  a shield- 
of-arms  of  the  Genoese  families  of  Centurione  and  Doria  impaled,^ 

^ Other  examples,  mostly  in  private  possession,  are  illustrated  in  Vienna,  O.G.,  PI.  17  ; 
Martin,  O.C.,  Figs.  315,  317-20  ; Meisterwerke,  Munich,  Pis.  70,  71.  There  is  a carpet 
with  the  star-shaped  panels  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  (No.  138),  and  two  with 
ogee-shaped  panels  (Nos.  135  and  136). 

2 Meisterwerke,  Munich,  PI.  72.  The  arms  have  been  identified  by  Mr.  A.  Van  de  Put. 
Cardinal  Wolsey’s  insistent  demand  for  these  carpets  is  referred  to  later  (p.  76). 

49 


E 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


The  rugs  with  the  space  of  plain  colour  in  the  middle  convey  more 
forcibly  still  the  impression  of  having  been  made  to  suit  the  taste  of  the 
European  customer.  The  eye  of  the  Oriental  is  not  so  partial  to  those  mono- 
tonous spaces^  which  might  have  been  relieved  by  a simple  pattern  with  very 
little  extra  trouble.  We  have  in  these  rugs  the  first  signs  of  an  adaptation, 
as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century,  to  the  exigencies  of  the  foreign  market 
for  which  they  were  destined.  In  later  days  those  influences  were  so 
potent  that  the  survival  to  the  present  day  of  the  beautiful  craft  of  carpet- 
weaving as  a native  industry  is  almost  to  be  wondered  at.  Yet  it  would 
be  hard  to  point  out  any  great  branch  of  the  artistic  handicrafts  now 
practised  in  the  East  with  better  results.  It  is  true  that  we  cannot  hope 
to  see  carpets  made  again  to  rival  the  great  work  of  the  past,  any  more 
than  we  can  look  for  a revival  of  the  conditions  under  which  it  was 
produced.  The  royal  patron,  with  the  resources  of  the  whole  kingdom 
at  his  command,  has  given  way  to  the  commercial  trader.  It  is  due  to 
the  latter  to  say  that  he  has  done  much  to  keep  the  industry  alive,  but 
whether  modern  conditions  are  favourable  to  the  development  of  the 
highest  qualities  in  design  and  craftsmanship  is  another  matter.  At 
any  rate  it  may  be  justly  claimed  that  surprisingly  beautiful  modern 
carpets  may  still  be  bought  at  a trifling  cost. 

Other  types  of  carpets  made  in  Asia  Minor  are  contemporary  with 
the  small  rugs  just  described.  Somewhere  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  a white  ground  was  used.  The  choice  of  colour  may  again  have 
been  a concession  to  Western  taste.  White  grounds  are  occasionally 
found  in  old  Persian  carpets  (e.g.  Plate  i8),  but  they  do  not  cover  the 
whole  carpet,  border  and  all ; and  where  used  they  are  more  broken  up 
by  close  patterns.  The  colours  are  chiefly  red,  blue  and  yellow.  The 
carpets  illustrated  on  Plates  45  and  46A  are  of  this  kind.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  former  has  the  cloud-band  repeated  at  intervals  in  the  border. 
Various  explanations  have  been  given  of  the  nondescript  forms  in  the 
middle,  but  they  are  nothing  more  than  angular  renderings  of  the  S -shapes 
often  found  in  Persian  design.  The  other  carpet  has  in  the  middle 
repetitions  of  the  double  stripe  and  the  group  of  three  discs  below  (see 
Plate  205),  which  appears  so  often  in  the  art  of  Asia  Minor  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  double  stripes  may  have  originated  either  in  cloud-forms 
or  in  the  fur-markings  of  animals.  The  three  discs  appear  to  have  been 
devised,  or  at  any  rate  adopted  as  a badge  by  the  great  Mongol  conqueror 
Timur  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

When  Ruy  Gonzales  de  Clavijo,  who  went  with  an  embassy  from 

50 


TURKEY 


Castile  to  the  Court  of  Timur  at  Samarcand  in  1403^  arrived  at  the  town 
of  Kesh,  36  miles  from  Samarcand^  he  was  shown  a palace  which  had 
been  many  years  in  buildings  and  was  not  then  finished.  Over  a doorway 
he  noticed  the  figure  of  a lion  and  a sun^  which  are  the  arms  of  the 
lord  of  Samarcand  ; and,  though  they  say  that  Timour  Beg  ordered  these 
palaces  to  be  built,  I believe  that  the  former  lord  of  Samarcand  gave 
the  order ; because  the  sun  and  lion,  which  are  here  represented,  are 
the  arms  of  the  lords  of  Samarcand  ; and  those  which  Timour  Beg  bears 
are  three  circles  like  O's,  drawn  in  this  manner  and  this  is  to  signify 
that  he  is  lord  of  the  three  parts  of  the  world.  He  ordered  this  device 
to  be  stamped  on  the  coins,  and  on  everything  he  had.^^ 

Later  the  ambassador  mentions  that  the  judges  in  the  city  of 
Samarcand  use  **  the  seal  of  the  lord,  having  three  marks  upon  it,  like 
this, 

Timur  penetrated  into  Asia  Minor,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  connect 
the  appearance  of  his  device  there  with  his  invasion.  The  use  of  the 
three  discs  was  rendered  so  widespread  by  his  orders  that  in  course  of 
time  they  must  have  become  merely  a trite  motive  of  ornamentation. 

Another  kind  of  pattern,  an  arrangement  of  interlacings  in  star-form, 
generally  surrounded  by  diminutive  trees  and  floral  stems,  placed  in 
radiating  fashion,  sometimes  covers  the  middle  of  the  carpet.  These 
carpets  seem  to  form  a link  between  those  of  the  mosque  at  Konia  and 
the  Anatolian  examples  described  above.  There  is  something  in  them 
which  suggests  North  Africa  or  even  an  approximation  to  the  carpets 
of  Spain,  but  they  may  be  Asia  Minor  work  of  the  fifteenth  to  the 
seventeenth  centuries  (Plate  47).  A more  intricate  design,  with  similar 
tendencies,  is  of  equally  uncertain  origin  (Plate  48).  Three  specimens 
of  a class  of  carpets  not  unfrequently  seen,  both  in  actual  examples  and 
in  pictures,  are  reproduced  in  this  volume  (Plates  49-51).  Carpets 
of  this  group  are  singularly  uniform  in  design.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  they  were  made  in  a single  district  of  Asia  Minor,  though  it  is  not 
known  where.  They  have  acquired  the  name  of  Transylvanian  carpets 
from  the  accidental  circumstance  that  considerable  numbers  have  been 
found  in  that  province,  which  lies  at  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the 
old  Austro-Hungarian  lands,  separated  by  the  Carpathian  Mountains 

1 Narrative  of  the  Embassy  of  Buy  Gonzalez  de  Clavijo  to  the  Court  of  Timovr,  at  Samar- 
cand, A.D.  1403-6,  Translated  by  Clements  R.  Markham  (London,  Hakluyt  Society,  1859, 
pp,  124,  175),  Dr.  F.  R.  Martin  first  drew  attention  to  this  passage  in  connexion  with 
the  appearance  of  the  device  on  works  of  art. 

51 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


from  Roumania*  While  the  latter  country  remained  annexed  to  the 
Turkish  Empire  these  carpets  were  imported  by  way  of  Kronstadt,  thus 
making  Transylvania  a centre  for  their  distribution  farther  afieldd  The 
earlier  type  is  represented  by  Plate  49.  This  carpet  resembles  closely 
a specimen  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum ; the  chief  difference  is 
that  the  spandrels  of  the  latter  carpet  are  filled  with  a kind  of  arabesque 
design  instead  of  the  floral  motives,  indicating  an  earlier  date.  Examples 
must  have  reached  the  Low  Countries  by  the  seventeenth  century,  for 
they  are  to  be  found  faithfully  reproduced  in  pictures.  There  is  a good 
example  in  the  London  National  Gallery,  a painting  of  two  men  in  a 
room  (called  A Merchant  and  His  Clerk  by  Thomas  de  Keyser.^ 
The  colouring  of  the  earlier  specimens  is  subdued  and  varied,  the 
central  field  being  usually  of  a deep  purple  tone,  and  the  border  panels 
in  four  or  five  different  colours.  The  relatively  numerous  examples 
extant  afford  a very  good  opportunity  of  tracing  first  their  Persian 
derivation,  then  the  gradual  appearance  of  Turkish  colouring  and  motives, 
and  finally  the  complete  subordination  of  the  original  design.  For  this 
reason  it  is  proposed  to  discuss  these  examples  more  fully.  If  the  four 
spandrels  of  the  carpet  reproduced  in  Plate  49  had  been  united  into  a 
star,  they  would  have  formed  quite  a good  central  pattern,  and  this 
treatment  of  the  spandrels  is  more  Persian  than  Anatolian  in  origin.  The 
method  of  treatment  of  the  central  field  and  of  the  spandrels,  however, 
shows  a tendency  to  geometrical  conventionali2;ation  which  is  aided  by 
the  coarse  knotting  employed  in  this  type  of  carpet.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  middle  space  is  occupied  by  two  vases  placed  in  the  niches  formed 
by  the  spandrels  and  still  provided  with  the  chains  which  betray  their 
derivation  from  hanging  lamps.  The  shape  and  filling  of  the  narrow 
border  panels  show  quite  clearly  their  relation  to  the  well-known  Persian 
border  pattern  in  which  arabesques  surround  a flower.  Specimens  of 
more  recent  date  do  not  have  the  small  star-panels  in  the  border  and 
the  narrow  panels  are  immediately  adjacent  to  each  other.  Later  on 
the  central  vase-pattern  with  the  conventionalized  floral  stems  disappears. 
In  its  place  we  sometimes  find  a central  ornament  of  a totally  un-Persian 
character,  surrounded  with  flowers  (Plate  50).  In  the  spandrels  appears 
a geometric  pattern  which  can  scarcely  be  recognized  as  consisting  of 

^ Several  examples  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  actually  came  from  Transylvania 
about  forty  years  ago.  Dr.  Martin  states  that  the  Transylvanians  retained  a percentage 
of  the  carpets  passing  through,  as  a tax  (O.C.,  p.  130). 

2 Lessing  reproduces  the  border  of  another  in  a portrait  by  Cornelis  de  Vos  at  the 
Brussels  Museum  {Alt  Or.  Teppichmuster,  PI.  29). 

52 


TURKEY 


flowers  or  leaves*  After  a lapse  of  only  a few  years  the  flowers  in  the 
narrower  panels  of  the  border  lose  their  natural  character^  while  the 
arabesques  become  stiffened  almost  beyond  recognition.  In  order  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  these  carpets  come  from  Anatolia^  we  find  sometimes 
those  conventionalized  carnations  springing  from  the  spandrels  and 
reaching  into  the  central  panel  which  are  so  common  in  the  Anatolian 
prayer-carpets. 

The  last  carpet  of  this  type  here  illustrated  (Plate  51)  shows  these 
motives.  The  central  panel  reveals  its  connexion  with  its  predecessors 
(Plates  49,  50)^  and  there  are  other  traces  of  good  tradition — but  there 
is  hardly  anything  in  this  carpet  to  remind  us  of  its  original  Persian 
ancestry. 

Prayer-rugs  have  already  been  briefly  referred  to.  They  were 
nowhere  so  popular  as  in  Asia  Minor. 

Every  Muhammadan  has  to  perform  five  ablutions  daily,  which 
are  followed  by  five  prayers.  Just  as  specially  shaped  vessels  have  to 
be  used  for  these  ablutions,  so  have  all  particulars  for  the  prayers  been 
laid  down.  The  prayer-rug  in  the  mosque  is  placed  immediately  in 
front  of  the  prayer-niche  (Qiblah),  which  indicates  the  direction  of  Mecca, 
towards  which  the  faithful  have  to  pray.  For  this  reason  the  carpet 
has  a special  design,  which  in  itself  is  reminiscent  of  the  niche,  so  that 
the  apex  may  be  pointed  towards  Mecca.  The  true  believer  has  to  step 
on  to  the  farther  end  in  order  that,  after  bowing  towards  the  angels  on 
the  right  and  on  the  left,  who  record  his  good  and  his  evil  deeds 
respectively,  and  murmuring  several  prayers,  he  may  kneel  down  and, 
while  resting  upon  his  hands,  touch  the  earth,  that  is  to  say  the  carpet, 
with  his  head. 

The  type  from  which  the  Anatolian  prayer-carpets  are  derived  is 
a niche  supported  by  one  or  two  columns  at  each  side,  and  provided  with 
a lamp  of  vase-form  hanging  from  the  apex,  and  perhaps  having  two 
pricket-candlesticks  below.^  Several  of  these  constituent  parts  have 
undergone  radical  change  at  the  hands  of  the  carpet  designer,  no  doubt 
due  to  successive  copying  through  the  centuries.  If  the  earliest  prayer- 
carpets  had  come  down  to  our  times  the  original  type  would  have  been 
shown  more  clearly.  The  niche  is  the  most  constant  feature.  The 
lamp  becomes  a hanging  vase  of  flowers  with  the  chains  still  seen,  though 
the  vase  is  inverted  (see  Plate  49).  Sometimes  a spray  of  flowers  hangs 

^ See  an  early  carved  wood  panel  belonging  to  M.  Gillot,  in  Exposition  des  Arts  Musul- 
mans,  by  G.  Migeon,  Paris,  1903,  PI.  I. 


53 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


alone  (Plates  53  and  54)*  Quite  often  the  lamp  is  replaced  by  an  inverted 
ewer  with  handle  and  spout,  generally  containing  flowers  (Plate  98). ^ 
Occasionally  it  is  transformed  into  a nondescript  ornament  (Plate  102), 
and  in  a few  instances  a central  panel  is  connected  by  a line  with  the 
head  of  the  niche,  as  though  it  too  were  derived  from  the  hanging  lamp. 
The  supporting  columns  remain  as  a rule  in  some  form  or  another  (Plate 
55).  At  times  they  become  ornamental  stripes  sprouting  into  floral 
forms  at  top  and  bottom  (Plate  54) ; or  the  niche  head  may  even  be 
provided  with  the  unsubstantial  support  of  a mere  succession  of  floral 
forms  (Plate  53),  Floral  sprays  or  stripes  may  also  represent  the  pricket- 
candlesticks,  which  are  not  found  in  an  intelligible  guise  on  existing 
carpets. 

The  three  best-known  types  of  these  prayer- carpets  have  been 
associated  with  the  localities  of  Ghiordes  (Gordium  i)t  Kula  and  Ladik 
(Laodicea),  but  this  classification  (for  it  cannot  safely  be  regarded  as  a 
precise  statement  of  geographical  fact)  takes  no  account  of  some  important 
specimens  of  which  the  carpet  reproduced  in  Plate  52  is  an  excellent 
example.  Here  the  spandrels  are  a deep  red,  and  the  niche  itself  a very 
dark  blue,  but  the  colour  reverts  to  red  again  below  the  large  pale  blue 
cloud-band  which  in  form  almost  repeats  the  niche-head,  though  this 
is  perhaps  accidental.^  The  carpet  is  Anatolian.  In  some  respects  it 
resembles  the  small  rugs  imported  into  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  (see  p.  44).  It  has  been  attributed  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  by  Bode,  and  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  by  Martin.  Much 
depends  on  whether  the  exaggerated  angularity  of  the  pattern  is  a sign 
of  primitive  origin,  or  whether  the  impression  that  it  may  be  a good 
design  breaking  up,  is  altogether  without  foundation.  The  carpet  is  a 
fine  one,  but  the  possibility  of  an  origin  in  the  seventeenth  century  cannot 
safely  be  overlooked.  The  three  classes  of  prayer-carpets  referred  to  above 
are  mostly  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  though  a few 
examples  are  as  early  as  the  seventeenth.  The  most  familiar  type  of 
Ghiordes  prayer-carpet  is  illustrated  in  Plate  98. 

It  shows  a well-known  border  with  palmettes  and  rosettes  and 
numerous  little  stripes  of  conventional  ornament.  The  extra  stripes 

^ A Ghiordes  prayer-carpet  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch  has  in  the  niche  a 
lamp,  with  foliations  springing  from  it,  suspended  by  chains,  and  beneath  that  an  inverted 
ewer  containing  carnations.  A Turkish  prayer-carpet  is  usually  woven  upside  down  ; 
this  may  account  for  the  inversion. 

2 There  is  an  excellent  coloured  illustration  in  Vienna,  O.C.,  PI.  3.  See  also  W.  von 
Bode,  V orderasiatische  Kniipfteppiche,  coloured  frontispiece  to  2nd  edition. 

54 


TURKEY 


above  the  niche  will  also  be  noticed.  The  hanging  lamp  has  become 
an  inverted  ewer.  A simpler  and  more  unusual  form  of  Ghiordes  prayer- 
carpet  is  shown  on  Plate  54.  The  carpet  reproduced  in  colour  on  Plate 
53  is  again  more  elaborate.  It  is  one  of  a few  examples  woven  with 
inscriptions.  That  in  the  two  panels  above  the  niche  is  as  follows  : 
**  My  lord^  my  august  Padishah — may  you  be  joyful  and  happy  unto 
the  days  of  the  last  judgement.'^  This  inscription  shows  that  the  carpet 
in  question  may  have  been  intended  as  a present  for  a sultan  or  some 
other  dignitary.  There  is  also  an  inscription  within  the  niche^  as  follows  : 
**  I come  before  thy  throne  heavily  laden  with  sin  and  pray  that  my  sins 
and  guilt  may  be  forgiven  me,**  ^ It  is  in  Turkish  but  contains  a few 
Persian  words^  a circumstance  which  has  no  bearings  however,  on  the 
theory  held  by  some  that  these  carpets  were  actually  made  by  Persian 
workmen  in  Anatolia,  because  a number  of  Persian  words,  especially 
religious  terms,  are  used  by  the  Turks. 

An  inscription  in  the  open  space  of  the  prayer-niche  is  rare.  The 
suggestion  of  lion-masks  in  each  alternate  palmette  of  the  border  (to  be 
seen  also  on  Plate  98)  may  be  accidental.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  be 
recalled  that  masks  of  lions  are  often  found  in  the  palmettes  of  Persian 
carpets  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  or  even  attached 
independently  to  the  sterns.^  The  same  border  is  seen  in  the  curious 
prayer-carpet  illustrated  on  Plate  56,  although  in  that  example  the  palmettes 
are  obviously  quite  floral  in  character.  The  elongated  form  of  the  niche- 
head  is  unusual.  This  carpet  must  be  classed  with  the  Ghiordes  group. 
It  belongs  to  Mr.  George  Mounsey.  The  hyacinth  sprigs  within  the  niche 
may  be  compared  with  those  on  Mr.  Mounsey's  small  mat  illustrated  on 
Plate  46B.  The  mat  is  knotted  in  wools  like  a carpet,  although  the  design 
is  evidently  taken  from  the  well-known  silk-velvet  divan  covers  of  Asia 
Minor. 

The  Kula  prayer-carpets  are  generally  inferior  to  those  of  Ghiordes. 
The  knotting  as  a rule  is  not  so  fine,  the  design  shows  a tendency  towards 
monotonous  diapers,  and  the  colour  is  paler  and  less  pleasing,  with  a 
predominance  of  yellow.  The  blue  niche  with  the  strings  of  blossoms 
shown  on  Plate  100  is  common  in  Kula  carpets.  The  wide  border  is 
filled  with  rows  of  carnation  blossoms.  It  is  more  usual  for  the  border 
to  be  broken  up  into  many  narrow  stripes ; more  than  a do^en  may  be 

^ Translated  by  Professor  Dr.  von  Kaelitz. 

2 See  Pis.  I,  10,  14  and  22  Two  Ghiordes  prayer-carpets  are  reproduced  in  colours 
in  Vienna,  O.C.,  Pis.  57,  60. 


55 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


counted  in  some  instances.  The  carpet  illustrated  on  Plate  loi  has 
eleven^  and  it  is  classified  as  a Kula^  although  the  little  patches  of  landscape 
within  the  niche  do  not  properly  belong  to  such  carpets. 

The  difficulties  which  beset  any  local  classification  of  the  carpets 
of  Asia  Minor  are  demonstrated  in  an  example  reproduced  on  Plate  57. 
The  most  conspicuous  motive  of  the  pattern  is  the  series  of  four  small 
landscapes  within  the  niche,  with  a representation  of  a mosque  in  the 
arch  at  the  top.  Such  little  plots  of  ground  with  cypress-trees  and 
buildings  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  intended  to  represent 
a Muhammadan  cemetery,  and  from  the  circumstance  the  name  usually 
applied  to  such  carpets  is  derived.  Apart  from  this  feature,  the  design 
has  ingredients  both  of  the  Ghiordes  and  Kula  types.  The  border, 
with  its  row  of  lion-mask  ''  palmettes  and  flowers  alternating,  resembles 
those  of  the  Ghiordes  carpets  just  described  (Plates  52  and  56).  The 
narrow  stripes  outlining  the  border  on  each  side,  and  the  filling  of  the 
space  above  the  niche,  are  typical  of  Kula  (see  Plate  100).  The  carpet 
is  Anatolian,  and  it  is  unsafe  to  specify  the  actual  locality  of  production 
more  closely.  The  same  may  be  said  of  another  carpet  belonging  to 
Mr.  George  Mounsey,  in  which  the  landscape  motive  is  again  rendered 
(Plate  58).  The  ground  is  bright  red,  with  rows  of  houses  and  trees 
in  strongly  contrasting  colours. 

The  last  of  the  three  principal  types  of  these  later  Anatolian  prayer- 
carpets  is  the  **  Ladik.'^  A good  example  is  seen  on  Plate  102.  A row 
of  long  inverted  stems  ending  in  blossoms  is  generally  to  be  found  below 
the  niche  in  this  group.  The  device  filling  the  niche,  with  its  four  ewers 
precariously  balanced,  has  lost  all  meaning.  A yellow  panel  under  the 
central  arch  bears  the  date  1211  of  the  Hegira,  corresponding  to  a.d.  1797.^ 
The  fantastic  forms  of  this  type  of  carpets  are  again  exemplified  in  Plate 
103,  which  has  a ewer  poised  in  the  niche  and  two  more  in  the  spandrels. 
Another  variation,  much  simpler,  with  three  distinct  arches,  is  shown 
on  Plate  55.  In  some  Ladik  carpets  even  the  niche  is  reduced  to  an 
absurdity  (Plates  104  and  105).  There  are  several  other  types  of 
prayer- carpets  of  Asia  Minor  bearing  geographical  names.  These  are 
described  in  a later  chapter  (see  p.  155  foil.). 

Carpets  such  as  that  reproduced  on  Plate  114  seem  like  intruders 
among  the  carpets  of  Anatolia.  Their  strange  barbaric  design,  their 
exclusive  use  of  geometrical  forms  and  the  multiplicity  of  hooked 

1 A Ladik  prayer-carpet  reproduced  by  F.  R.  Martin  {O.C.,  Fig.  340)  is  dated 
A.H.  iiio=A.D.  1699. 

56 


TURKEY 


contours  give  them  an  unsophisticated  air  which  telis  of  nomad  life. 
They  are  the  work  of  the  Yuruks — nomad  shepherds  of  Asia  Minor, 
Before  turning  to  the  consideration  of  the  carpets  of  the  Caucasian 
region^  two  examples  of  uncertain  provenance  should  be  referred  to. 
The  first  (Plate  59)  has  the  form  of  an  Anatolian  rug  with  a niche  at  each 
end,  but  in  some  respects  it  resembles  still  more  nearly  the  carpets  of 
Western  Persia,  Were  it  not  for  the  stiff  conventionalization  of  the 
floral  border,  and  the  trivial  diaper-filling  of  the  spandrels,  the  carpet 
might  almost  have  been  attributed  to  the  weavers  of  Kurdistan,^  It 
was  probably  made  in  Eastern  Asia  Minor,  The  other  (Plate  60) 
conforms  still  more  closely  to  Western  Persian  types,  but  the  border 
is  found  in  Caucasian  work,  and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  while 
considering  the  carpets  to  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter, 

1 Cf.  Vienna,  0.(7.,  PI.  66. 


57 


Chapter  V 


THE  CAUCASUS 

In  a present-day  classification  of  Oriental  carpets  the  segregation 
of  a group  which  it  is  convenient  to  describe  as  **  Caucasian  **  is  inevitable. 
After  very  little  acquaintance  with  the  subject  this  term  calls  up  quite 
a definite  image^  though  the  carpets  to  which  it  is  collectively  applied 
vary  as  much  as  the  people  do  in  that  part  of  the  world.  Few  of  the 
carpets  placed  in  this  group  are  older  than  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
most  are  of  the  nineteenth,  though  carpet-weaving  was  carried  on  among 
the  Caucasian  people  considerably  earlier  than  that.  The  anomaly 
thus  involved  may  be  explained  first  of  all  by  its  practical  convenience, 
and  again  to  some  degree  by  the  gradual  southward  advance  of  Russia 
over  the  Caucasian  region,  and  an  apparent  localisation  and  fusion  of 
patterns  which  followed.  The  predecessors  of  these  ''  Caucasian "" 
carpets  must  be  looked  for  among  those  assigned  to  Asia  Minor,  Armenia 
and  Persia. 

The  territories  in  question  lie  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Black 
Sea,  with  the  Caucasus  Mountains  running  obliquely  across  from  the 
one  to  the  other.  This  range  forms  a natural  boundary  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  marked 
approximately  the  frontier  between  Russia  on  the  one  side  and  Persia 
and  Turkey  on  the  other.  From  time  to  time  the  two  latter  people 
disputed  for  a larger  share  of  the  southern  borderland,  but  ultimately 
Russia  shifted  her  own  frontier  by  conquest  southwards,  and  a Trans- 
Caucasian  province  of  Russia  was  constituted.  In  the  first  year  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  King  of  Georgia  abdicated  in  favour  of  the  Czar. 
In  1827  during  a campaign  against  Persia,  Erivan  and  Tabriz  were 
conquered,  and  in  the  following  year  the  Russian  frontier  was  fixed  by 
Treaty  at  the  Aras  River.  The  boundary  between  the  Russians  and 
the  Turks  was  thrust  forward  in  the  next  year,  and  in  1878  Russia  obtained 
Batum,  The  whole  of  this  relatively  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the 
two  great  inland  seas  is  peopled,  as  might  be  expected,  by  a mixture  of 
racial  elements. 

The  carpets  are  mostly  made  on  the  south  side  of  the  mountain- 

58 


THE  CAUCASUS 


range^  but  there  are  carpet-weavers  in  the  narrow  angle  between  the 
mountains  and  the  Caspian  shore  on  the  north  side.  Motives  descended 
from  the  old  designs  of  Persia^  Armenia^  Asia  Minor  and  nomad  tribes 
are  to  be  discerned.  Generally  speaking,  these  carpets  show  a stiff 
conventionalization  of  floral  patterns,  and  geometrical  forms  much 
bolder  in  scale  than  those  of  most  nomad  carpets.  The  almost  playful 
introduction  of  little  figures  of  men,  animals  or  birds,  usually  in  odd 
corners,  is  quite  frequent. 

The  task  of  differentiating  the  various  local  groups  now  recognized 
must  be  left  to  a later  section  of  this  book,  to  which  it  properly  belongs. 
A few  general  considerations  are  all  that  need  be  set  down  here. 

The  carpet  reproduced  on  Plate  6i  shows  roughly  what  may  be 
expected  in  the  group.  The  middle  design  renders  the  old  Persian 
palmettes  and  large  floral  motives  in  a fashion  almost  unrecognizable, 
while  the  stems  have  been  transformed  into  a random  medley  of  zigzags. 
The  border  is  less  broken  up,  forming  a strong  contrast  with  the  middle 
pattern. 

A less  drastic  change  is  seen  in  another  carpet  (Plate  62)  showing 
the  transformation  of  an  entire  pattern,  not  only  of  single  motives,  when 
transplanted  to  Caucasian  soil.  The  Persian  stems  and  palmettes  and 
cloud-bands  are  here  marshalled  into  a rigid  order  quite  alien  to  the 
old  Persian  tradition.  Although  there  is  no  central  medallion  and  no 
corner  spandrels,  one  need  only  visualize  the  stems,  flowers  and  cloud- 
bands  in  a freer  rendering  and  a well-known  Persian  design  of  the 
seventeenth  century  lies  before  our  eyes.  The  angularity  of  the  design 
in  this  case  is  by  no  means  due  to  clumsiness  or  want  of  technical  ability ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  perfectly  intentional.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
ends  of  the  cloud-bands  which  are  repeated  so  often  in  the  carpet,  both 
horizontally  and  vertically,  have  been  treated  as  conventionalized  leaves. 
The  local  touch  which  is  seldom  missing  in  old  imitations  of  famous 
patterns,  because  they  were  copied  in  all  innocence,  without  any  intent 
to  deceive,  may  be  seen  here  in  the  flower  consisting  of  eight  curves, 
which  is  repeated  five  times,  once  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  carpet, 
and  again  towards  each  corner.  This  motive  may  often  be  found  in 
Caucasian  carpets  (see  Plates  125,  132A). 

The  carpet  shown  in  Plate  27B  is  another  link  between  the  Caucasian 
work  and  the  traditional  designs  of  Persia.  Another  carpet  attributed 
to  the  Caucasian  region  is  reproduced  on  Plate  20A.  Its  elongated  leaf- 
forms  on  an  unusually  large  scale,  overlaid  with  conventionalized  floral 

59 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


stems,  have  an  obvious  affinity  with  the  dragon- carpets  shown  on  Plates 
5 and  6,  and  the  Armenian  carpet  dated  a.d»  1679  (Plate  7).  The  border 
is  an  angular  rendering  of  one  of  the  type  shown  in  Plate  165*  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  extension  of  the  Russian  boundary  brought 
Armenia  partly  within  the  territories  of  Turkey,  Persia  and  Russia. 

A well-known  group  of  Caucasian  carpets  is  represented  by  Plates 
63  and  64.  These  carpets,  with  their  compressed  and  angular  renderings 
of  Persian  floral  patterns,  usually  on  a deep  blue  ground,  are  admirable 
from  a decorative  point  of  view.  The  borders  are  almost  invariably  of 
white  interlinked  bands  derived  from  Kufic  lettering.  It  is  a curious 
fact  that  the  earlier  forms  of  the  border  pattern  are  as  typical  of  the 
art  of  Asia  Minor  as  those  of  the  middle  design  are  of  Persia.  Occa- 
sionally carpets  of  this  class  have  in  the  middle  field  an  interlaced  design 
in  which  the  forms  of  Kufic  letters  appear.  The  carpet  illustrated  on  Plate 
1 19  shows  a similar  middle  pattern  but  a different  border — of  conven- 
tionalized floral  motives.  The  narrow  stripes  edging  the  borders  of 
these  carpets  are  filled  with  rows  of  carnation  blossoms  turned  alternately 
to  right  and  left — a motive  found  earlier  in  Anatolian  prayer-rugs. 

This  edging  is  seen  on  the  border  of  the  carpet  reproduced  in  colour 
on  Plate  121.  The  middle  pattern  with  its  row  of  bold  octagons  and 
its  uncompromisingly  geometrical  treatment  belongs  to  a class  usually 
ascribed  to  the  province  of  Shirvan  on  the  north  side  of  the  Caucasus 
Mountains.  The  carpet  is  not  older  than  the  nineteenth  century,  but 
it  is  instructive  to  compare  it  with  Anatolian  examples  such  as  those 
illustrated  on  Plate  41.  A comparison,  with  the  former  of  these  especially, 
will  leave  little  room  to  doubt  of  the  derivation  of  the  one  from  the  other, 
allowing  for  three  centuries  of  change.  It  also  provides  a valuable  com- 
mentary on  the  origin  of  the  typical  modern  Caucasian  patterns.  It  is 
also  the  favourite  pattern  of  the  pileless  **  Soumak  ” rugs,  an  example 
of  which  is  reproduced  in  Plate  146.  The  latter  again  should  be 
compared  with  the  Anatolian  rugs  above  mentioned ; in  this  case  it  is 
the  second  example  which  shows  the  greater  similarity.  The  various 
types  of  Caucasian  rugs  of  the  nineteenth  century,  with  their  territorial 
names,  are  dealt  with  in  a later  chapter. 


60 


Chapter  VI 


EASTERN  ASIA 
(a)  Turcoman  Tribes 

Although  few  existing  Turcoman  carpets  are  likely  to  have  been 
made  before  the  eighteenth  century,  there  are  no  carpets  of  more 
primitive  type.  Carpets  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus  recall  them 
at  times,  and  the  earlier  these  carpets  are  the  more  likely  are  they  to  do 
so.  It  is  the  same  with  the  carpets  reproduced  in  pictures ; the  oldest 
are  most  like  them.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  craft  among  the 
Turcoman  people  dates  back  many  centuries.  Had  there  been  an  export 
trade,  it  might  have  led  to  the  preservation  of  a few  early  examples  in 
the  West. 

The  Turcoman  carpets  follow  a line  of  their  own  in  matters  of 
design,  colour  and  technique.  They  are  made  in  a greater  variety  of 
forms,  and  they  serve  more  purposes,  than  those  of  other  lands.  The 
tradition  they  follow  is  no  doubt  of  great  antiquity,  and  if  the  carpets 
themselves  are  of  no  great  age,  the  reason  must  be  sought  in  the  daily  use 
to  which  they  were  all  alike  subjected.  They  are  made  in  the  regions 
beyond  the  farther  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  in  a tract  extending  eastwards 
as  far  as  Bokhara,  northwards  to  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  southwards  to  the 
boundary  of  Persia.  There  are  also  Turcoman  nomads  in  Afghanistan, 
Beluchistan,  Persia  and  Asia  Minor,  most  of  whom  weave  carpets.  The 
sedentary  population  are  not  carpet-producers,  but  the  nomads  for  the 
most  part  are  skilled  in  carpet-weaving,  and  different  tribes  have  their 
own  special  patterns.  The  principal  equipments  of  their  large  movable 
tents  (kibitka)  are  made  by  these  weavers.  Rugs  for  the  floor  are  never 
large.  The  most  characteristic  production  is  the  tent-band,  usually  about 
a foot  wide  and  sometimes  as  much  as  50  ft.  long,  which  is  hung  round 
the  tent  where  the  sides  join  the  roof.  The  designs,  sometimes  including 
rude  figures  of  men,  besides  camels  and  other  animals,  are  usually  in 
knotted  pile  on  a pileless  ground  of  light  tone  (see  Plate  177).  Bags  of 
carpet-weaving  are  hung  round  the  tent  to  contain  the  family  belongings. 
There  are  also  portieres,  narrow  fringed  borders  for  tent-entrances, 
camel-collars  and  other  articles  of  the  same  material.  The  work  is 

61 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


done  by  the  women.  The  ground  is  almost  invariably  a deep  purple- 
red,  except  in  those  cases  where  it  is  pileless  and  of  a natural  pale  tone. 
The  pattern  is  mostly  in  dark  blue,  white,  and  shades  of  red  ; sometimes 
green  or  yellow  are  added.  The  basis  of  the  pattern  is  usually  polygons, 
star-shapes,  lozenges  or  crosses,  containing,  and  separated  by,  interlacings, 
chequer-patterns  and  geometrical  forms  perhaps  derived  from  floral 
motives.  The  carpets  are  excellently  well  made,  the  wool  of  fine  quality, 
the  dyes  good,  the  knotting  close  and  regular,  and  the  work  durable. 
The  different  patterns  are  specified  in  a later  chapter.  Rugs  with  the 
prayer-niche  are  not  common,  although  perhaps  the  specimen  illustrated 
on  Plate  190  may  be  intended  to  show  this  feature.  There  is  a prayer- 
rug  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  with  a plain  niche,  apparently 
of  undyed  camel-hair ; the  row  of  dark  blue  cones  in  the  border  is  a 
little  unusual  in  Turcoman  rugs.  It  almost  seems  as  though  the  nomad 
weaver  had  borrowed  some  ideas,  for  once,  from  an  Anatolian  prayer- 
carpet.  The  Turcoman  carpets  made  in  Afghanistan  and  Beluchistan 
are  usually  rougher  and  poorer  in  technique,  and  simpler  in  pattern 
(see  Plates  187  and  193). 

(6)  China  and  Chinese  Turkestan 

The  history  of  Chinese  carpets  has  not  yet  been  written,  and  the 
task  cannot  be  undertaken  with  any  approach  to  finality  just  yet.  There 
is  still  need  for  careful  research  on  the  spot  and  for  more  representative 
collections  to  be  formed  in  Europe  so  as  to  provide  a field  for  comparative 
study.  A few  Chinese  carpets,  picked  up  by  travellers,  were  brought 
to  the  West  during  the  course  of  the  last  century.  More  recently  still, 
the  vogue  which  arose  for  Chinese  art  generally  focused  attention  on 
the  carpets  and  large  numbers  were  shipped  to  America  and  Europe 
by  commercial  agents.  For  the  most  part,  it  was  as  novelties  that  they 
gained  their  popularity. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  fragments  of  pile-carpets 
found  within  the  last  few  years  in  the  Gobi  desert  region  (see  p.  6). 
Further  developments  must  be  awaited,  and  proper  facilities  for  study 
afforded,  before  a reliable  estimate  of  their  age  and  nationality  can  be  formed. 

Marco  Polo,  who  makes  frequent  references  to  the  textile  industry 
of  China,  says  nothing  about  the  weaving  of  pile-carpets  there,  although 
on  his  way  out  he  remarks  how  good  the  carpets  of  Asia  Minor  are. 

Chinese  carpets  to-day  form  a group  of  very  pronounced 
individuality.  The  main  characteristics  of  this  group  are  common  to 

62 


EASTERN  ASIA 


a large  area  of  Asia  extending  in  a wide  belt  from  the  westernmost  limits 
of  Chinese  Turkestan  at  the  apex  of  India^  through  Tibet,  and  across 
the  northern  provinces  of  China  as  far  as  the  Yellow  Sea. 

There  are  grounds  for  believing  that  pile-carpet  making  among 
those  peoples  is  not  of  great  antiquity.  They  seem  rather  to  have  picked 
up  the  craft  from  their  neighbours.  The  most  vital  point  of  contact 
would  be  Turkestan,  where  they  were  in  touch  with  the  Turcoman  and 
Persian  weavers.  Carpets  have  long  been  made  in  Kashgar,  Yarkand 
and  Khotan,  but  they  are  woven  also  in  Turfan  and  in  other  outlying 
parts  of  the  province.  The  line  of  advance  towards  the  Eastern  seas  would 
be  that  sketched  out  above,  and  the  craft  appears  to  have  spread  gradually 
from  one  point  to  another  along  the  route. 

The  industry  in  Chinese  Turkestan,  Tibet  and  the  neighbouring 
parts  of  China  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  the  women  in  their  homes.  As 
it  advances  through  North  China  it  is  taken  up  by  the  men,  and  factories 
have  been  established  in  recent  years. 

The  Chinese  carpets  usually  regarded  as  showing  the  best  evidence 
of  age  are  those  in  silk,  or  silk  and  gold,  commonly  attributed  to  the 
time  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  but  with  small  justiflcation  as  a rule.  Silk 
is  not  an  ideal  material  for  carpet-knotting,  and  its  use  for  such  a purpose, 
though  natural  in  China,  is  probably  no  older  there  than  elsewhere  in 
carpet-weaving  countries. 

The  designs  of  these  carpets  have  an  archaic  appearance,  due  largely 
to  the  stiff  and  angular  treatment  of  the  floral  motives  usually  forming 
the  pattern.  The  Chinese  way  of  putting  in  the  gold  thread,  where 
that  is  used,  adds  emphasis  to  this  angularity,  and  the  pale  and  faded 
tones  of  the  silk  strengthen  the  illusion  of  age.  The  example  illustrated 
on  Plate  65  is  typical.  The  conventionalization,  to  a point  almost  past 
recognition,  of  the  circular  dragon-and-phoenix  motive  will  be  noticed. 
The  carpet  was  originally  wider,  with  the  motive  in  each  corner  and  another 
in  the  middle.  Blue,  the  colour  of  the  ground,  is  the  prevailing  tone. 
Much  of  the  pattern  is  in  gold  thread.  In  these  carpets  the  floral  motives 
are  usually  closely  packed  to  cover  the  whole  ground.  A remarkable 
example  acquired  in  the  year  1919  by  the  Stockholm  Museum  showed 
repetitions  of  two  plant  forms  in  lobed  compartments  on  a gold  ground, 
and  a border  of  interlaced  floral  stems  on  a silver  ground,  recalling  Persian 
design.^  Sometimes  other  motives  appear  as  well.  Blue  is  usually 

^ Described  and  illustrated  by  Dr.  Eric  Folcker  in  Burlington  Magazine,  Vol.  XXXV, 
1919,  p.  61. 


63 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


the  dominant  colour  of  the  silk*  Where  gold  thread  is  used,  it  is  poor 
in  quality  and  loosely  woven  into  the  texture.  The  carpet  partly  illustrated 
on  Plate  66a  is  a good  example  of  this  type.  It  has  a row  of  eleven  niches, 
all  containing  floral  patterns  in  silk  on  a gold-thread  ground.  Silver 
thread  forms  the  ground  in  the  spandrels.  There  is  a similar  carpet, 
but  smaller,  with  only  six  niches,  in  the  Austrian  Museum  of  Art  and 
Industry,  Vienna.^  An  example  of  later  date,  without  the  metal  threads, 
is  shown  on  Plate  67. 

The  silk  and  gold  carpets  form  a strong  contrast  to  the  majority 
of  the  Chinese  woollen- pile  carpets,  which  show  a great  variety  of 
motives,  often  in  the  bright  clear  colours  characteristic  of  Chinese  art. 
At  times  the  designs  show  an  originality  not  beyond  criticism.  Relief 
effects  cannot  be  banished  from  carpet- design,  and  it  is  no  use  making 
the  attempt ; but  when  flower-pots,  incense-vases,  table-ornaments 
and  the  like  are  rendered  as  though  they  were  actual  objects  placed  on 
the  carpet,  the  result  is  not  entirely  free  from  a suggestion  of  incongruity. 
The  carpet  illustrated  on  Plate  68  is  a very  favourable  example  of  this 
class  of  pattern,  on  a white  ground.  The  artistic  sense  of  the  Chinese, 
when  the  balance  is  not  disturbed  too  much  by  purely  commercial  motives, 
is  still  genuine  and  good,  and  they  know  well  how  to  harmonize  what 
would  appear  as  absurdities  in  other  hands.  The  handicap  from  the 
beginning  in  regard  to  their  carpet  industry  seems  to  have  been  that 
its  lineage  was  not  very  ancient,  and  as  a late-comer  it  was  pressed  into 
a mould  fashioned  for  other  uses.  Figure-subjects  have  been  freely 
used  in  Chinese  carpet-design.  For  the  most  part  they  represent  divinities, 
saints,  sages  or  priests,  often  with  an  inscription  in  Manchurian,  Mongo- 
lian or  Tibetan.  These  carpets  are  intended  for  use  in  the  temples. 

Most  of  the  designs  are  drawn  from  the  repertory  of  traditional  Chinese 
art.  We  find  dragons  and  phoenixes,  sometimes  together,  unicorns  ** 
{ch*i-lin),  deer,  horses,  cranes,  bats  and  butterflies.  **  Corean  lions  ** 
and  various  emblems  associated  with  Buddhism  are  found,  as  well  as 
emblems  of  the  Taoist  philosophy.  Landscape  effects  with  trees  and 
animals  are  sometimes  suggested,  and  the  various  forms  of  the  long 
life  **  character  are  introduced.  Corean  lions  and  floral  sprays  in  colours 
on  a red  ground,  form  the  sole  motive  of  the  carpet  shown  on  Plate  69. 
The  dragon-headed  horse  (lungma)  and  the  phoenix  are  represented  in 
the  middle  of  the  small  rug  reproduced  on  Plate  70B.  The  ground  of 
this  carpet  is  red,  and  the  pattern  chiefly  in  blue  and  white. 

1 Vienna,  O.C.,  PI.  52. 

64 


EASTERN  ASIA 


A peculiar  arrangement  of  rocks  and  waves  is  sometimes  disposed 
round  the  middle  space  based  on  the  inner  border  of  the  carpet^  and 
converging  towards  the  centre.  Carpets  with  simpler  patterns^  of  floral, 
diaper,  or  fret  motives  are  often  very  decorative.  The  carpet,  in  v/hite 
and  two  shades  of  blue,  with  a simple  lotus  pattern  (Plate  71),  is  an  excellent 
example. 

The  Chinese,  and  with  them  the  Tibetans,  have  used  the  pile-knotting 
method  for  a variety  of  purposes.  Some  of  their  carpets  are  of  large 
dimensions  ; others  are  little  mats  varying  from  about  3 ft.  to  only  a 
few  inches  square,  never  intended  for  the  floor.  Sometimes  two  mats 
are  made  in  one  continuous  texture  to  cover  the  seat  and  back  of  a chair 
— square  for  the  seat  and  shaped  for  the  back.  An  example,  with  a floral 
pattern  in  colours  on  a red  ground,  is  illustrated  on  Plate  70A.  A similar 
double  arrangement  of  two  oblong  panels  is  intended  for  a long  seat. 
Where  three  panels  are  thus  woven  together,  the  third  is  intended  to 
hang  down  in  front.  Saddle-cloths  are  also  made  in  a curved  shape. 
Designs  evidently  intended  to  be  seen  upright,  and  not  suited  for  a 
horizontal  position,  are  generally  meant  to  be  used  as  temple-hangings  for 
the  wall  or  altar,  or  as  table- hangings.  A species  of  carpet  peculiar  to 
the  Chinese  and  kindred  peoples  of  the  Far  East  is  made  to  be  placed 
round  pillars,  in  such  a way  as  to  bring  the  two  side  edges  together 
and  so  complete  the  design.  Sometimes  these  carpets  have  standing 
figures ; more  often  they  have  dragons,  which  appear  to  be  coiling 
round  the  columns.  There  is  generally  a line  of  waves  and  rocks  with 
spray  breaking  over  them  below,  and  a festooned  arrangement  of  jewels 
and  tassels  above.  The  examples  on  Plates  72  and  73  are  shown  both 
flat  and  in  the  way  they  are  meant  to  be  used. 

The  carpets  of  Eastern  Turkestan  were  the  first  among  the  Chinese 
group  to  find  their  way  to  Europe,  and  as  they  became  familiar  in  the 
West  before  others  made  farther  afield  were  seen,  a habit  grew  up  of 
assigning  all  Chinese  carpets  to  this  region. 

Though  preponderatingly  Chinese  in  design  and  colour,  they  have 
a character  of  their  own  which  renders  them  distinguishable,  as  a rule, 
from  the  carpets  of  Northern  China.  A typical  example  is  shown  on 
Plate  74,  and  a small  mat  of  very  similar  design,  on  a red  ground  on  Plate 
75A.  The  pattern  of  sea  waves  in  the  border  is  very  common  in  these 
carpets.  The  fret-ornament  in  the  corners  and  the  rosettes  in  the  middle 
are  motives  also  frequently  found.  Sometimes  these  carpets  are  more 
definitely  based  on  those  of  Western  Asia,  although  the  colour-scheme 

65  F 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


and  the  details  of  the  pattern  are  still  Chinese.  A carpet  shown  at  the 
Vienna  Exhibition  of  1891  had  a pattern  of  flowering  stems  in  the  middle, 
partly  issuing  from  two  vases  at  either  end,  and  a border  of  counterchange 
cresting.^  The  effect  is  that  of  an  interpretation  of  an  Anatolian  design, 
though  delineated  quite  in  Chinese  fashion. 

In  the  north-eastern  provinces,  Shan-si,  Chi-li  and  Shantung, 
the  industry  appears  to  have  been  well  established  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  Two  small  mats  reproduced  (Plates  75B,  66b)  are  probably 
from  those  provinces.  The  latter  was  brought  from  North  China  by 
the  owner.  Colonel  Croft-Lyons. 

Many  carpets  find  their  way  to  Tientsin  for  export,  and  on  that 
account  the  term  **  Tientsin  carpet  **  has  come  into  use.  The  place 
was  merely  the  emporium  for  the  Far  East,  like  Bokhara  for  Middle  Asia, 
or  Smyrna  for  the  Near  East. 

Ninghsia  and  Peking  have  a name  for  making  the  best  carpets. 
Kalgan  in  Chi-li  is  also  mentioned,  and  at  Tsinanfu  in  Shantung  the 
craft  is  taught.  Fifty  years  ago,  Colonel  Yule,  the  editor  of  Marco  Polo^s 
travels,  recorded  that  in  the  city  of  T'ai-yuan  fu,  northern  Shan-si  province, 
fine  carpets  **  like  those  of  Turkey  **  were  made.^  The  phrase  probably 
means  no  more  than  that  the  carpets  were  of  knotted  pile. 

The  wool  of  the  sheep,  goat,  camel  and  yak  are  used.  The  material 
comes  chiefly  from  Mongolia,  but  local  supplies  are  used  where  obtainable. 

A common  practice  among  the  Chinese  carpet-weavers  of  cutting 
into  the  pile  in  order  to  round-off  the  angular  contours  produced  by 
the  knotting  process  shows  that  they  do  not  submit  willingly  to  its  limita- 
tions. The  result  is  that  many  single  tufts  are  cut  away  on  one  side 
down  to  the  knot  itself,  thereby  impairing  the  durability  of  the  carpet. 
This  practice  is  not  followed  elsewhere  and  it  tends  to  show  that  in  devising 
it  the  Chinese  were  endeavouring  to  adapt  a foreign  process  of  weaving 
to  their  own  favourite  types  of  design.  The  colours  used  by  the  Chinese 
are  few  in  number  and  generally  of  strong  tone.  The  ground  is  mostly 
red,  yellow,  blue  or  white,  and  a few  other  colours  are  used.  Blue  is 
greatly  employed,  as  in  their  pottery ; quite  frequently  shades  of  blue 
and  white  form  the  entire  colour-scheme.  The  native  dyes  are  said  to 
be  by  far  the  best,  and  where  poor  dyes  have  been  used,  it  is  to  be  assumed 
that  they  were  derived  from  foreign  sources. 

The  brisk  trade  in  Chinese  carpets  in  recent  times  has  arisen  partly 

^ Vienna,  O.C.,  PI.  49. 

2 Sir  H.  Yule,  The  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo,  3rd  ed.  1903,  Book  II,  ch.  37. 

66 


EASTERN  ASIA 


from  an  awakened  interest  in  Chinese  art  generally.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  an  impetus  was  given  by  the  cutting  off  of  the  carpet-weaving 
centres  of  Western  Asia,  resulting  in  the  organi2;ation  of  the  industry  in 
Northern  China  for  export  purposes.  Experiments  in  setting  the  craftsmen 
there  to  imitate  the  patterns  of  Western  Asia  have  not  been  an  unqualified 
success. 


67 


Chapter  VII 


EUROPE 
(a)  Spain 

It  has  been  known  for  many  years  that  pile- carpets  were  made  in 
Spain,  but  the  long  record  of  the  industry  there,  and  the  extent  to  which 
it  has  been  carried  on,  were  unsuspected  until  recent  times*  On  the 
one  hand,  the  Spanish  weavers  had  attributed  to  them  typical  Oriental 
carpets  with  devices,  such  as  heraldry,  for  instance,  betraying  Western 
connexions,  while  some  of  their  own  carpets  were  ascribed  to  the  East ; 
and  on  the  other  hand  it  has  been  hinted  that  they  were  slavish  copyists 
of  Eastern  work,  and  poor  at  that*  Sheer  weight  of  facts  gradually 
coming  to  light  is  correcting  such  views  by  the  best  of  all  methods,  that 
of  demonstrating  the  truth  of  contrary  ones*  During  the  past  forty 
years  the  spoils  of  many  churches,  convents  and  mansions  have  found 
their  way  into  the  market,  and  although  the  necessity  is  to  be  deplored, 
there  is  at  least  one  advantage — that  museums  have  been  provided  with 
the  material  for  arriving  at  a truer  understanding  of  Spanish  art*  So 
far  as  carpets  are  concerned,  we  do  not  know  everything  yet,  but  the 
main  facts  have  been  made  clear*  Not  every  pile-carpet  known  to  have 
come  from  Spain,  or  still  there,  is  Spanish*  Carpets  were  imported 
from  Anatolia ; many  such  have  been  found  in  Spain,  and  others  may 
be  seen  represented  in  old  Spanish  paintings*  Like  all  other  European 
countries  where  carpet-knotting  has  been  carried  on,  Spain  learnt  the 
craft  from  the  East,  but  she  learnt  it  early,  and  developed  at  once  on 
independent  lines*  There  is  a decidedly  individual  character  in  Spanish 
carpets,  both  as  regards  design  and  technique* 

Some  of  the  oldest  carpets  now  in  existence  are  Spanish*  This 
conclusion,  which  sounds  improbable  at  first,  is  provided  with  a sound 
historical  basis  by  the  heraldry  usually  found  on  these  early  carpets* 
They  are  mostly  abnormally  long  in  proportion  to  their  width,  a char- 
acteristic pointing  to  a local  and  domestic  origin*  A carpet  may  be 
as  long  as  the  weaver  desires,  but  its  width  is  determined  by  that  of  the 
loom,  and  domestic  looms  are  usually  narrow  for  convenience*  It  is 
quite  likely  that  these  long  heraldic  carpets  were  convent  work*  Two 

68 


EUROPE 


very  important  examples,  shown  at  the  great  exhibition  of  Muhammadan 
art  at  Munich  in  1910/  came  from  the  Convent  of  Sta  Clara  in  Valencia, 
Old  Castile,  One  has  a shield-of-arms  three  times  repeated  in  a line 
down  the  middle,  on  a dark  blue  ground  of  diaper  ornament.  There 
is  an  inner  geometrical  border,  and  an  outer  border  of  slim  formalized 
Kufic  characters  ^ with  human  figures,  animals  and  birds  filling  the 
spaces  between  the  letters.  Along  each  end  outside  the  border  there 
is  a white  strip  with  a design  of  wild  men  attacking  animals  in  a wood. 
The  inscribed  outer  border  is  a special  feature  of  these  early  Spanish 
carpets,  and  the  extra  white  band  at  the  ends  will  be  met  with  again. 
The  arms  are  those  of  the  family  of  Enriquez*  The  anchors  flanking 
the  shield  show  that  the  bearer  held  the  rank  of  Admiral  of  Castile,  and 
this  places  the  carpet  between  the  year  1405  and  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  other  carpet  generally  similar,  but  much  larger,  is  partly 
reproduced  on  Plate  76.  There  are  three  shields,  each  several  times 
repeated.  They  refer  to  Marina  de  Ayala  and  Fadrique  Enriquez,  Admiral 
of  Castile  (d.  1473)*®  The  carpets  may  therefore  be  dated  approximately 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  A few  other  carpets  of  the  kind 
are  known.  One  similar  to  the  two  described,  but  without  heraldry, 
was  shown  at  the  Munich  Exhibition.^  Two  more  are  in  the  Kunst- 
gewerbe  Museum,  Berlin.  One  of  these  has  shields-of-arms  at  present 
unidentified,  on  a blue  ground,  and  the  other  has  elaborate  palmette 
forms  branching  on  either  side  from  a central  stem,  in  blue,  red  and  white 
on  a dull  red  ground  (Plate  77A).  The  latter  is  reputed  to  have  come 
from  a church  in  the  Tyrol.  Both  appear  to  be  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Although  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  has  not  yet  succeeded  in 
obtaining  one  of  these  rare  carpets,  some  useful  fragments,  acquired  by 
gift  from  Mr.  Lionel  Harris,  show  the  character  of  the  work. 

Another  type,  of  which  a few  examples  still  exist,  is  no  less  early  in 
origin.  A representative  example  is  illustrated  (Plate  78).  The  arrange- 
ment of  octagons  enclosing  geometrical  forms  recalls  that  of  Anatolian 
carpets  illustrated  in  early  pictures — those  of  Memlinc  and  his  school 


^ Lent  by  Mr.  Lionel  Harris,  of  London.  It  is  understood  that  they  are  now  in  America. 

2 Sir  Thomas  Arnold  states  that  there  can  be  no  certainty  as  to  the  actual  significance 
of  letters  on  carpets  of  this  type. 

® The  identification  of  the  arms  on  both  carpets  is  due  to  Mr.  A.  Van  de  Put  (see  Bur- 
lington Magazine,  XIX,  p.  344).  See  also  Meisterwerke  Muhammedanischer  Kunst, 
Munich,  1910,  Vol.  I,  Pis.  85,  86;  Museum,  I,  1911,  p.  431.  The  sizes  are  : (i)  L.  m.  5.90, 
W.  m.  2.64  ; (2)  L.  m.  8,  W.  m.  2.30. 

* Meisterwerke,  PI.  87. . 


69 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


(Plate  36),  or  Holbein^  for  example*  The  octagonal  spaces  which  occur 
so  frequently  in  carpets  illustrated  in  pictures  of  the  fifteenth^  and  even 
the  fourteenth  century^  are  probably  primitive  and  convenient  renderings 
of  circles*  In  the  Spanish  carpets^  the  form  is  shown  in  its  stiffest 
convention^  but  redeemed  by  the  variety  and  brilliancy  of  colouring* 
The  example  illustrated  has  a row  of  three  large  red  octagons  enclosed 
by  rectangular  compartments*  Within  each  octagon  is  a large  and  elaborate 
star-device  in  polychrome  on  a bright  red  ground*  The  star  is  filled  with 
a variety  of  diaper  patterns  and  modified  Kufic  letters*  The  space 
around  each  octagon  has  a trellis  pattern  on  dark  green*  There  are 
borders  of  conventional  ornament  on  pale  blue  and  black*  Another 
example,  the  property  of  Dr*  Ludwig  von  Buerkel,  was  shown 
at  the  Munich  Exhibition  of  1910*  It  had  a double  row  of  octagons, 
but  otherwise  it  was  very  similar  though  less  varied  in  detail*  It  was 
probably  a few  years  later  in  date  than  the  London  carpet*^  The  later 
development  of  this  pattern  of  octagons  in  Spain  is  exemplified  in  a carpet 
with  a red  ground  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  (Plate  77B)* 
Both  the  types  of  Spanish  pile-carpets  hitherto  described  have 
originality  enough  to  render  them  fairly  easily  recognisable*  A third 
group,  now  to  be  discussed,  is  quite  unique*  There  is  nothing  in  the 
whole  range  of  carpet-knotting  like  them*^  They  reproduce  the 
patterns  of  contemporary  Spanish  woven  silk  stuffs,  much  enlarged  in 
scale,  but  with  no  further  modification  beyond  that  required  by  the 
technique*  Such  patterns  make  considerable  demands  upon  the  skill 
and  patience  of  the  carpet-knotter  where  fine  lines  and  curves  have  to 
be  rendered*  The  adoption  by  the  Spanish  weavers  of  a single-warp 
knot  (see  p*  95),  perhaps  invented  for  the  very  purpose,  made  the  task 
easier,  though  it  involved  great  manipulative  skill*  The  earliest-known 
example  of  the  class  is  the  fine  carpet  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
with  a pattern  found  in  several  variations  among  Hispano-Moresque  silks. 
Two  lions  stand  to  right  and  left  of  a pointed  fruit  device  from  which 
branch  downward  two  long  stems  which  curl  round  to  enclose  the  lions, 
uniting  above  where  they  end  in  elaborate  foliations*  The  design  is 
in  red  and  yellow  on  a dark  blue  ground*  There  is  a narrow  border 
of  dragons,  with  interlinked  necks,  in  yellow*  This  carpet  has  the  early 
Spanish  characteristic  of  inordinate  length  in  proportion  to  its  width* 

^ Meisterwerke,  PI.  88  ; Museum  I,  1911,  p.  429.  See  also  F.  R.  Martin,  O.C.,  Fig.  342. 

2 The  nearest  approach,  in  principle  though  not  in  detail,  is  made  by  the  English 
carpets  yet  to  be  described. 


70 


EUROPE 


The  collection  of  Spanish  carpets  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
is  the  largest  and  most  varied  existing^  and  it  includes  other  remarkable 
examples*  Reference  must  be  made  to  a few  of  them  in  tracing  the 
later  development  of  the  craft*  One  of  these  (Plate  79)  has  a variation 
of  the  familiar  **  artichoke  **  pattern  in  green  and  blue  on  a red  ground* 
The  white  outer  edging  at  the  two  ends,  with  the  pattern  of  primitive 
tree-forms  and  birds,  links  this  carpet  with  the  long  heraldic  ones  described 
above*  It  was  probably  made  in  the  last  years  of  the  fifteenth  century* 
A very  fine  strip,  with  the  lobed  pattern  so  familiar  in  Italian  and  Spanish 
silk  velvets  of  the  fifteenth  century,  belongs  to  the  Hon*  H*  D*  McLaren, 
M*P*  The  colours  are  unusually  subdued,  on  a black  ground  (Plate 
80)*  Reverting  to  the  Museum  collection,  a carpet  with  another  render- 
ing of  the  ""  artichoke  **  pattern  in  green,  has  a flame- coloured  ground, 
of  glowing  red  dying  off  into  orange — a most  beautiful  effect  of  colour* 
A typical  example  of  the  sixteenth  century  has  a fine  blue-and-white 
damask  pattern  in  the  middle,  with  five  yellow  shields  superimposed 
(Plate  81)*  Upon  that  in  the  middle  is  the  Sacred  Trigram  I H S,  while 
those  in  the  corners  have  the  familiar  memento  mori,  a skull  and  cross- 
bones*  The  conventional  renaissance  border  is  principally  in  red  and 
yellow* 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  design  of  Spanish  carpets  becomes 
a little  uncertain*  On  the  one  hand  there  are  the  true  successors  of 
the  frankly  Spanish  carpets  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  side  by  side 
with  these  there  are  deliberate  adaptations  of  the  Turkish  carpets  which 
were  probably  to  be  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  peninsula  at 
the  time*  One  example  in  the  Museum  has  a copy  of  a floral  Turkish 
carpet-design  in  the  middle,  done  in  blues  and  greens  and  yellows,  and 
a border  of  double-headed  eagles*  Another  with  an  Oriental  design 
throughout  has  the  word  **  Trinidad  " wrought  into  the  border — no 
doubt  representing  the  name  of  the  church  or  convent  for  which  it  was 
made*  The  carpet  reproduced  in  colours  on  Plate  82  is  perhaps  one 
of  the  Spanish  adaptations  of  an  Eastern  design* 

An  interesting  carpet  of  the  early  eighteenth  century  given  to  the 
Museum  by  the  late  Sir  Charles  Dilke  returns  to  the  heraldic  tradition* 
The  central  field  is  taken  up  with  a shield-of-arms  and  an  inscription 
apparently  referring  to  the  title  Vi^conde  de  los  Villares,  created  in  1708*^ 
Two  other  types  of  carpets  were  made  in  the  Spanish  peninsula 
in  considerable  numbers*  One  has  a looped  pile  surface  in  wool  or  silk 

1 The  identification  of  the  arms  is  due  to  Mr.  A.  Van  de  Put. 

71 


HAND- WOVEN  CARPETS 


on  a linen  ground.  These  were  made  in  the  Alpujarra  Mountains  near 
Granada  and  perhaps  in  other  districts.  As  they  are  not  hand-knotted 
they  need  not  be  described  in  detail.  Others  are  boldly  embroidered 
on  linen  and  therefore  they  do  not  concern  us  here, 

(6)  Poland 

Some  reference  to  the  question  of  carpet-knotting  in  Poland  has 
already  been  made,  in  connexion  with  the  mistaken  attribution  to  Poland 
of  the  Persian  silk-and-gold  carpets.  There  is  ample  evidence,  however, 
that  pile-carpets  were  made  in  Poland, 

Both  Polish  and  Persian  carpets  are  mentioned  in  old  inventories, 
and  examples  undoubtedly  of  Polish  origin  exist  to-day.  Two  are 
preserved  in  the  Museum  at  Lemberg,  One  has  shields-of-arms  and 
the  date  1698,  The  other  has  a floral  pattern.  Another  carpet  with 
heraldry  is  in  a private  collection  at  Cracow,^ 

The  carpet  illustrated  here  (Plate  83)  is  the  property  of  Dr,  Friedrich 
Sarre,  The  pile  is  wool,  and  the  pattern  is  in  colours  on  a white  ground. 
The  general  appearance  of  these  Polish  carpets  recalls  the  English  work, 
but  the  treatment  of  the  design  is  more  angular, 

(c)  Finland 

The  making  of  hand-knotted  carpets  probably  dates  back  several 
centuries  among  the  peasantry  of  Finland,  The  question  whether  the 
carpet-knotting  method  is  indigenous  there,  or  whether  it  was  borrowed 
from  neighbouring  peoples  is  considered  as  debatable  by  investigators 
of  the  national  arts  of  the  country. 

Considerable  numbers  of  pile-carpets  of  local  origin  exist  to-day. 
They  are  invariably  of  modest  dimensions,  mostly  about  the  si^e  and 
proportions  of  a hearthrug.  The  knotting  is  not  very  fine,  and  the 
carpets  consequently  have  a rough  and  fleecy  appearance.  The  patterns 
are  mostly  simple  peasant  designs  based  on  floral  motives,  done  in  bright 
and  varied  colours.  One  of  these  rugs  usually  formed  part  of  a bride's 
trousseau,  and  many  have  the  initials  of  the  owner  and  the  date.  Examples 
with  dates  earlier  than  the  middle  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  appear 
to  be  unknown,  but  the  craft  goes  back  very  much  farther. 

At  one  time  the  work  declined,  but  in  recent  years  efforts  have  been 
made,  not  altogether  without  success,  to  revive  it.  The  example  here 

1 Orientalisches  Archiv,  II,  1911-12,  Pis.  11-13. 

72 


EUROPE 


illustrated,  with  the  date  1799,  is  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
(Plate  84).  The  colours  are  red,  green,  blue  and  white  on  a black  ground. 
The  broad  border  is  in  blue,  white  and  black  on  a red  ground ; there 
is  a narrow  edging  in  blue.  Tapestry-woven  mats  of  Finnish  origin 
are  known,  although  they  are  rare.  Others  have  been  made  in  Norway 
and  Sweden,  but  they  may  be  more  suitably  classed  with  tapestries,  and 
they  hardly  come  within  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 


(d)  France 

The  makers  of  hand-woven  carpets  in  France,  as  elsewhere  in 
Europe,  borrowed  the  processes  from  the  East.  In  regard  to  design 
they  followed  a course  no  less  independent  and  original  than  the  English 
craftsmen.  The  real  beginning  of  carpet-knotting  in  France  cannot 
be  traced  to  an  earlier  date  than  the  opening  years  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  A guild  of  carpet-makers  existed  in  Paris  four  centuries  before, 
but  nothing  now  remains  of  their  handiwork,  and  we  are  even  ignorant 
of  its  nature. 

In  the  year  1601  a craftsman,  Jehan  Fortier,  claimed  to  be  the 
originator  of  a process  of  carpet-making  which  was  described  as  being 
after  the  manner  of  Turkey  and  the  Levant,  and  a similar  claim  was 
made  by  Pierre  Dupont  in  1605.  Privileges  were  granted  for  carrying 
on  the  work.  A factory  was  established  by  Henry  IV  in  the  Louvre 
under  Dupont,  and  artists  of  repute  were  commissioned  to  make  designs. 
These  were  probably  from  the  beginning  in  the  style  of  contemporary 
French  decorative  art,  like  those  made  under  Louis  XIV  and  later. 
In  consequence,  French  carpets  have  a very  distinct  originality. 

The  factory  of  the  Savonnerie,  which  has  provided  a generic  name 
for  all  French  hand-knotted  carpets,  was  founded  in  1626.  Its  site  was 
a building  originally  used  as  a soap-works,  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine  at 
Chaillot,  then  a suburb  of  Paris,  but  since  united  with  the  city.  Simon 
Lourdet,  a pupil  of  Dupont’s,  was  the  first  director.  In  1672  the  Louvre 
atelier  was  transferred  to  the  Savonnerie,  where  work  for  Louis  XIV 
was  already  in  progress.  Ninety  great  carpets  were  ordered  for  the 
Louvre,  many  measuring  as  much  as  30  ft.  in  length  by  16  ft.  or  more 
in  width.  These  commissions  kept  the  looms  at  work  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  long  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  The  designs  were  characterised 
by  the  magnificence  and  splendour  associated  with  that  monarch’s  name. 
They  were  based  largely  on  the  acanthus  foliage  and  scrollwork  belonging 

73 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


to  the  period,  forming  a setting  for  the  royal  arms  and  emblems,  the 
trophies  of  arms,  the  gods  and  goddesses  and  other  devices.  The  effect 
aimed  at,  and  attained,  can  only  be  properly  gauged  in  their  appropriate 
surroundings,  lying  on  the  floors  of  the  great  saloons  of  Louis  XIV,  and 
associated  with  the  ponderous  boule-work  and  inlaid  furniture  of  the  time. 
More  than  thirty  of  these  great  carpets  are  still  in  the  French  Mobilier 
National. 

By  the  kind  dispositions  of  the  administrator,  M.  Dumonthier,  and 
with  the  sanction  of  the  French  Government,  a fine  series  of  these  carpets, 
numbering  eleven  in  all,  was  placed  on  public  view  in  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum  in  London,  in  the  years  1912  and  1921.  Two  of  these 
carpets  in  the  Mobilier  National  are  here  illustrated,  with  the  permission 
of  M.  Dumonthier  (Plates  85,  86). 

The  existence  to-day,  in  a remarkably  good  state  of  repair,  of  so 
many  of  these  carpets  witnesses  to  the  high  quality  of  the  craftsmanship 
and  materials. 

Work  at  the  Savonnerie  went  on  during  the  course  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  under  the  First  Empire.  Numerous  carpets  in  the  Mobilier 
National  are  of  those  times. 

In  1825,  after  a career  of  two  centuries  at  the  Savonnerie,  the  works 
were  united  with  the  national  tapestry-factory  of  the  Gobelins.  In  these 
new  quarters  carpets  were  made  for  the  palaces  of  the  Louvre,  the  Tuileries, 
the  Elysee,  St.  Cloud,  Compiegne  and  Fontainebleau,  for  the  Cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame  and  for  the  Pantheon. 

The  work  is  still  carried  on  at  the  Gobelins.  The  modern  carpets 
not  infrequently  exceed  the  older  in  weight  and  size.  At  times  their 
designs  are  based  on  earlier  traditions,  in  order  to  adapt  them  to  their 
destined  entourage. 


74 


Chapter  VIII 


ENGLAND 

The  making  of  pile-carpets  by  hand  in  England  followed  very  closely 
upon  the  first  importation  of  Oriental  examples.  In  the  sense  in  which 
the  term  carpet  **  is  used  to-day^  and  in  any  sense  cognate  to  it^  carpets 
were  unknown  in  this  country  five  hundred  years  ago.  In  the  West 
their  gradual  adoption  has  kept  pace  with  progressive  ideas  of  comfort. 
In  the  East  they  are  the  outcome  of  the  conditions  of  daily  life^  and  they 
have  always  been  indispensable.  There  are  very  few  carpets  now  in  the 
world  more  than  five  hundred  years  old^  but  that  fact  provides  no  clue 
to  the  antiquity  of  the  carpet^  since  such  goods  were  liable  by  their  nature 
to  perish  in  the  using.  Whatever  our  uncertainties  may  be  in  regard 
to  the  East^  we  can  be  pretty  sure  that  practically  nothing  was  known  in 
England  of  the  pile-carpet  before  the  reign  of  Henry  VII  at  the  earliest, 
if  not  that  of  his  successor.  There  are  many  illustrations  of  interiors 
in  English  paintings  and  miniatures  executed  before  those  times,  but  in 
none  of  them  is  a pile-carpet  represented.  As  late  as  the  fifteenth  century 
a flooring  of  stone  or  earthenware  tiles,  or,  perhaps,  wood-boards,  was 
considered  to  need  no  covering  for  the  sake  of  comfort  or  appearance. 
The  occupants  of  the  more  modest  dwellings  probably  had  often  to  be 
content  with  the  bare  earth ; and,  indeed,  some  of  our  country  churches 
were  no  better  off  at  a much  later  time.  A foot-cloth,"^  a piece  of  rich 
stuff  of  some  kind,  would  be  laid  down  before  the  altar  of  a church  or 
before  the  throne  in  the  royal  presence-chamber. 

These  cloths,  spread  out  in  special  places  on  occasions  of  ceremony, 
were  only  in  a very  limited  sense  the  predecessors  of  the  modern  carpet. 
They  did  not  entirely  meet  the  problem  of  the  treatment  of  the  floor 
in  mediaeval  times.  In  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do,  sweet  rushes,  hay, 
straw,  foliage,  fragrant  herbs  or  flowers  were  scattered  over  the  floor. 
These  could  be  renewed  at  will,  and  the  broom  might  be  more  or  less 
drastically  used,  at  regular  or  irregular  intervals,  according  to  the  taste 
of  the  individual. 

An  illustration  from  a celebrated  manuscript  in  the  Library  of 
Lambeth  Palace,  entitled  Dictes  and  Sayings  of  the  Philosophers,  a Latin 

75 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


book  translated  into  English  by  Earl  Rivers^  shows  the  translator  offering 
the  book  to  King  Edward  IV.  The  cloth  of  honour  is  brought  forward 
so  as  to  pass  under  the  feet  of  the  king^  while  loose  rushes,  painted  bright 
green  in  the  picture,  cover  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  floor.^ 

Even  after  another  century  had  passed,  at  the  end  of  Eli2;abeth's 
reign,  the  state  of  affairs  was  very  much  the  same.  Paul  Hentzner,  a 
German  who  came  to  London  in  1598,  states  that  Queen  Elizabeth's 
presence-chamber  at  Greenwich  was  strewn  with  hay.  In  fact,  the  interior 
economy  of  our  houses  seems  to  have  been  in  harmony  with  their  outward 
appearance.  We  recall  the  picturesque  exclamation  of  the  Spaniard  in 
Queen  Mary's  time : ''  These  English  have  their  houses  made  of  sticks 
and  dirt,  but,"  he  is  careful  to  add,  " they  fare  commonly  as  well  as  the 
king." 

Rush-matting,  although  used  to  cover  the  floor  by  our  nearest 
neighbours,  the  French,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  adopted  in  England  before  Henry  VIII's  reign, 
and  its  general  use  cannot  be  ascribed  to  an  earlier  time  than  that  of 
James  I.  One  of  the  earliest  representations  of  rush-matting  in  an  English 
picture  is  in  a portrait  of  Henry  VIII  at  Belvoir  Castle.^  The  rushes 
are  simply  plaited  in  a diagonal  fashion.  In  this  reign  the  pile- carpet 
first  comes  on  the  scene.  Cardinal  Wolsey  was  probably  the  first 
Englishman,  for  a subject  at  any  rate,  to  bring  pile-carpets  into  use.  They 
had  long  been  known,  though  only  as  rare  and  valuable  commodities, 
on  the  Continent.  A minister  who,  if  rumour  spoke  truly,  fed  his  aspiring 
soul  with  dreams  of  the  papal  tiara,  and  who  at  one  time  would  have 
rejoiced  to  secure  the  imperial  crown  for  Henry,  must  not  be  chargeable 
with  insular  habits.  He  must  be  equipped  in  the  fashion  of  the  times, 
and  carpets  must  be  got.  The  foreign  trade  of  the  country  being  then 
largely  in  the  hands  of  Continental  merchants  resident  in  London  and 
the  seaports,  he  could  apply  to  the  Venetian  factors ; but  that  course 
would  be  tedious  and  slow.  The  steps  he  did  take  lifted  the  question 
out  of  the  sphere  of  commerce  into  that  of  international  diplomacy.  The 
dispatches  and  reports  of  Sebastian  Giustinian,  then  Venetian  Ambassador 
in  England,  show  how  much  significance  that  dignitary  attached  to  a 
request  from  the  Cardinal  for  some  carpets.^  Negotiations  went  on  for 

^ Allen,  Selections  from  Erasmus,  p.  126,  gives  a criticism  of  the  practice. 

2 The  Drapers’  Hall  is  said  to  have  had  mats  in  the  Chequer  Chamber,  and  rushes 
in  the  hall,  in  1495,  but  we  have  no  information  as  to  the  material  of  the  mats. 

3 Four  Years  at  the  Court  of  Henry  VIII.  Selections  of  dispatches,  etc.  Vol.  II., 
pp.  198  foil. 


76 


ENGLAND 


more  than  a year.  In  June^  1518^  Giustinian  writes  home  to  the  Signory 
from  Lambeth  that  the  Cardinal  had  promised  to  take  him  before  the 
Council  and  obtain  audience  for  his  arguments  in  regard  to  the  repeal 
of  the  duties  on  Candian  wines  imported  into  England  by  the  Venetian 
traders.  **  After  these  colloquies^'^  the  ambassador  proceeds,  **  his 
right  reverend  lordship  requested  me  very  earnestly  to  contrive  with  the 
magnifico  the  captain  and  the  masters  that,  paying  for  the  same,  he  might 
have  certain  choice  carpets  and  some  other  articles,  but  above  all  the 
carpets.  I told  him  that  I did  not  know  whether  there  were  any,  but 
that  if  there  were,  his  lordship  should  have  them.  I suspect  he  will 
not  be  accommodated,  which  will  prove  of  serious  detriment  to  us ; 
whereas  had  he  received  twelve  or  fifteen  small  handsome  carpets,  he 
would  have  been  extremely  satisfied.  Should  your  Excellency  think 
fit,  you  might  see  either  to  forwarding  them  by  land,  or  promise  that 
he  should  receive  some  by  the  next  galleys.'^  In  November  of  the  same 
year  the  ambassador  writes  again  from  Lambeth.  The  Cardinal,  he 
says,  was  extremely  angry  with  the  Venetian  merchants  in  London,  who 
appear  to  have  done  something  which  led  him  to  believe  that  they  thought 
too  lightly  of  his  authority  in  the  kingdom.  Giustinian  had  been  to 
see  him  with  the  object  of  arranging  the  dispute.  He  appears  to  have 
been  in  some  degree  successful.  The  Cardinal  sent  for  the  merchants, 
who  offered  him  seven  very  handsome  Damascene  carpets.  He  was 
willing  to  accept  this  present  from  the  ambassador,  but  not  from  the 
merchants.  In  the  end,  he  agreed  to  regard  them  as  the  joint  gift  of 
both.  These  carpets  were  but  a drop  in  the  ocean.  The  autumn  of 
the  next  year  came,  and  still  the  request  for  the  carpets,  and  the  contingent 
question  of  the  duty  on  the  Cretan  wines  remained  as  before.  Giustinian 
is  by  this  time  back  in  Venice.  In  October,  1519,  he  makes  a report 
in  the  Senate  on  his  legation  in  England.  The  Cardinal  is  still  very 
anxious,  he  says,  for  the  Signory  to  send  him  one  hundred  Damascene 
carpets,  for  which  he  has  asked  several  times.  The  Senate  is  urged  to 
make  the  gift,  and  even  if  the  Signory  does  not  choose  to  incur  the  expense, 
the  London  factory  will  take  it  on  themselves.  The  gift  might  easily 
settle  the  affair  of  the  wines  of  Candia,  whereas  it  would  be  idle  to  discuss 
that  matter  further  until  the  Cardinal  receives  his  hundred  carpets.  In 
October,  1520,  Wolsey  received  sixty  carpets  from  Venice.  Doubtless 
they  were  similar  in  character  to  that  shown  in  the  full-length  portrait 
of  Henry  VIII  at  Belvoir  Castle,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made.  The  king  stands  on  a carpet  with  a pattern  of  arabesques  in 

77 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


large  compartments.  A royal  portrait- groups  painted  by  Holbein^  in 
the  Privy  Chamber  at  Whitehall,  after  that  palace  had  been  handed  over 
to  the  king  by  Wolsey,  perished  in  the  fire  of  1697-8,  but  copies  made 
before  that  date  show  the  king  standing  on  a carpet  somewhat  similar 
to  that  at  Belvoir.^  Still  another  portrait  of  Henry,  in  Earl  Spencer's 
collection  at  Althorp,  claims  our  attention.  The  king  is  seated  at  a table 
with  the  Princess  Elizabeth ; the  jester  Somers  stands  behind  them.  On 
the  table  is  spread  a small  Oriental  rug.  It  will  be  remembered,  of 
course,  that  for  a long  time  after  Oriental  carpets  were  first  brought 
into  Europe  it  was  far  more  common  to  use  them  as  tablecloths  than 
as  floor- coverings.  Evidence  on  this  point  meets  us  continually  in 
Flemish,  Dutch,  and  Italian  pictures  of  the  fifteenth  to  the  seventeenth 
century. 

The  actual  making  of  pile-carpets  in  this  country  followed  hard 
upon  their  first  importation  from  the  East.  A carpet  represented  in  part 
on  Plate  87A  has  in  the  middle  the  royal  arms  of  England,  with  the  initials 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  the  date  1570.  On  the  left  are  the  arms  of  the 
borough  of  Ipswich,  and  on  the  right  those  of  the  family  of  Harbottle. 
The  whole  of  the  pattern  is  thoroughly  English  and  typical  of  Elizabethan 
times.  In  particular,  the  borders  of  honeysuckle  and  oak-stems  are  to 
be  noticed.  The  carpet  is  the  property  of  Lord  Verulam.  It  is  probably 
the  oldest  existing  example  of  carpet-knotting  in  England.  Attempts 
at  carpet-weaving  may  have  been  made  at  an  earlier  date,  even  under 
Wolsey  himself ; for  among  his  household  goods  at  Hampton  Court 
were  several  woollen  table-carpets  of  English  making."  The  patterns 
of  these  are  described,  and  they  are  not  inconsistent  with  the  idea 
that  the  carpets  may  have  been  of  knotted  work ; but,  still,  we  can- 
not be  sure.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted  that,  in  view  of  the  wide 
disparity  as  regards  the  cost  of  labour,  the  English  craftsman  in  the 
days  of  Elizabeth  was  no  better  able  to  enter  the  lists  against  the  skilled 
Oriental  weaver  than  he  is  to-day.  But  for  all  that,  the  English  worker 
had  his  own  sphere,  and  the  craft,  once  taken  up,  was  long  kept 
alive. 

Before  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  English  Turkey  (or  Levant) 
Company  had  begun  direct  trading  with  the  Eastern  Mediterranean, 
and  carpets  were  more  easily  obtained.  Some  of  these  were  copied, 
more  or  less  faithfully,  in  England.  A carpet  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  has  a stiff  geometrical  pattern  (Plate  88).  The  shield-of-arms 

^ There  is  a copy  by  Remigius  van  Leemput  at  Hampton  Court. 

78 


ENGLAND 


in  the  middle  of  three  of  the  borders  is  that  of  Sir  Edward  Apsley*  An 
unusual  feature  is  the  inscription,  along  one  of  the  short  sides,  in  beautiful 
Elizabethan  characters  in  knotted  pile,  like  the  rest  of  the  carpet.  It 
reads  as  follows  : Feare  God  and  keepe  his  commandements  made 

in  the  yeare  1603/'  The  knighthood  was  conferred  in  that  year,  and 
the  carpet  may  have  been  made  to  commemorate  the  event.  The  design 
is  Eastern  in  origin,  but  the  carpet  is  English.  In  the  same  museum 
there  is  a small  panel  bearing  the  arms  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  with  her 
initials  and  the  date  1600  (Plate  87B).  The  design  is  typical  throughout 
of  the  English  art  of  the  time.  It  is  not  a large  piece,  and  it  could  hardly 
have  been  intended  for  the  floor.  This  knotting  process  came  to  have 
the  name  of  **  Turkey  work  **  in  England.  The  knot  is  quite  a simple 
one — the  same  as  that  generally  used  in  Turkish  carpets.  Panels  made 
in  this  way  were  often  used  for  upholstery,  and  numbers  of  them  exist 
to-day.^ 

The  carpet  reproduced  in  colours  on  Plate  89  is  a very  fine  example 
of  the  time  of  James  I.  The  date  1614  will  be  found  in  the  border,  and 
the  whole  design  is  characteristically  English  of  the  period.  The  carpet 
is  in  the  possession  of  Lady  Hulse.  There  is  an  English  carpet  of  similar 
design  at  Knole.  A second  example  at  Knole  has  the  arms  of  the  Countess 
of  Dorset,  who  died  in  1645. 

English  travellers  got  to  Persia  early  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  a 
little  later  an  effort  was  made  to  find  a Persian  carpet-weaver  who  might 
be  induced  to  come  to  England. 

A chapter  in  Hakluyt’s  Voyages  is  entitled  Certaine  directions 
given  ...  to  M.  Morgan  Hubblethorne,  Dier,  sent  into  Persia,  1579/^ 
In  this  chapter  we  read  as  follows  : In  Persia  you  shall  finde  carpets 

of  coarse  thrummed  wool,  the  best  of  the  world,  and  excellently  coloured  : 
those  cities  and  towns  you  must  repair  to,  and  you  must  use  means  to 
learn  all  the  order  of  the  dyeing  of  those  thrums,  which  are  so  dyed  as 
neither  rain,  wine,  nor  yet  vinegar  can  stain.  ...  If  before  you  return 
you  could  procure  a singular  good  workman  in  the  art  of  Turkish  carpet- 
making, you  should  bring  the  art  into  this  realm,  and  also  thereby  increase 
work  to  your  Company.” 

We  have  no  evidence  that  Hubblethorne  secured  his  Persian 
workman.  Carpet-knotting  in  the  old  style  went  on,  however,  until 

^ In  the  Inventory  of  1679  there  were  mentioned  four  Turkey-work  carpets  in  the 
Wardrobe,  and  twelve  Turkey-work  chairs  and  one  Turkey-work  carpet  in  the  lower  offices. 
(Mrs.  Charles  Roundell,  Ham  House,  pp.  50,  51.) 

79 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  By  that  time  the  country  was 
richer^  and  the  trade  of  the  East  India  Company  having  developed^  there 
was  no  real  difficulty  about  getting  carpets  from  India  and  Persia,  though 
it  was  a costly  business.  The  Girdlers'  carpet,  as  already  stated  (p.  39), 
was  obtained  through  the  East  India  merchants  in  1634.  The  quantity 
of  carpets  of  this  Indo-Persian  class  still  to  be  seen  in  old  English  houses 
bears  witness  to  the  extent  of  this  commerce,  and,  incidentally,  to  the 
national  wealth  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  As  a 
consequence,  the  industry  at  home  seems  practically  to  have  died  out ; 
and  when,  as  we  shall  see  in  a moment,  it  was  revived  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  regarded  as  a new  industry. 

Meanwhile,  experiments  in  carpet-knotting  **  after  the  manner 
of  Turkey  and  the  Levant  **  had  been  made  in  France,  as  already  related. 
Two  craftsmen  in  the  Savonnerie  at  Chaillot,  having  some  difference 
with  the  administration,  removed  to  London  in  1750,  and  began  making 
a carpet  in  a room  at  Westminster.  They  had  raised  some  money  by 
subscription,  but  they  soon  got  into  difficulties.  In  the  end  they  applied 
to  a fellow-countryman  in  London,  Pierre  Parisot,  a tapestry-weaver. 
Parisot  succeeded  in  interesting  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  engaged 
the  men  in  1751.  The  factory  was  removed  to  Paddington,  and  the 
first  carpet  made  was  presented  by  the  Duke  to  the  Princess  of  Wales. 
After  two  years  the  works  were  removed  to  Parisot's  tapestry-factory 
at  Fulham.  Great  expectations  were  raised  by  the  undertaking,  but 
its  career  was  short.  The  entire  works  of  the  Fulham  factory  were  sold 
by  auction  in  London  in  1755.  It  is  the  usual  story  of  such  enterprises 
in  England.  The  work  was  costly,  and  there  was  only  a limited  demand. 
Perhaps  had  the  factory  been  able  to  pull  through  the  first  few  years 
of  effort  and  financial  straits,  its  career  might  have  been  assured;  but 
even  that  is  doubtful.^ 

The  models  and  appliances  thus  fell  into  other  hands,  and  so  the 
failure  of  Parisot^s  venture  must  have  helped  towards  the  success  which 
attended  other  efforts  made  about  that  time. 

In  1756,  the  year  following  the  sale  of  the  Fulham  works,  the  Society 
of  Arts  offered  a premium  for  making  carpets  in  England  in  imitation 
of  those  made  in  Turkey  and  Persia.  The  name  of  Thomas  Moore,  of 
Chiswell  Street,  Moorfields,  is  the  first  on  the  list  of  recipients.  A carpet 
he  produced  to  the  Society  was  considered  to  be  **  in  many  respects 
equal,  and  in  some  respects  superior,  to  those  imported  from  Persia 
^ See  the  Gentleman’s  Magazine,  Vol.  XXIV,  1754,  p.  385. 

■ 80 


ENGLAND 


and  Turkey/'  ^ He  received  a premium  of  £25  in  1757^  and  a like  sum 
was  awarded  to  Thomas  Whitty  of  Axminster»  The  next  year  Whitty 
received  £25  again  ; while  Passavant  of  Exeter  received  an  equal  amount. 
Again^  the  following  year  (1759)  the  Society  made  an  award  of  £50^  giving 
£30  to  Whitty  and  £20  to  William  Jesser  of  Frome. 

More  than  twenty  years  later  the  good  results  of  these  awards  were 
apparent.  There  is  a note  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Society's  T ransactions 
(1783)  that  by  them  the  manufacture  of  carpets  is  now  established 
in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  brought  to  a degree  of  elegance 
and  beauty  which  the  Turkey  carpets  never  attained."  That  expression 
of  opinion  is  coloured  by  the  tastes  of  the  day,  which  would  have 
discovered  more  beauty  in  the  Graeco- Roman  elegancies  of  the  brothers 
Adam  than  in  anything  the  East  ever  had,  or  ever  could  have,  produced. 
But  we  are  in  a position  to  judge  for  ourselves. 

Not  much  appears  to  be  known  of  the  subsequent  career  of  Jesser's 
factory.  In  regard  to  Passavant's  at  Exeter,  the  carpet  illustrated  on 
Plate  90  was  doubtless  made  there.  It  bears  the  inscription  Exon 
and  the  date  1757.  A carpet  very  similar  in  character,  but  different 
in  design,  is  at  Petworth  House.  It  has  the  same  inscription,  with  the 
date  1758. 

The  other  two  recipients  of  the  Society  of  Arts'  awards,  Moore 
and  Whitty,  attained  a greater  celebrity.  Moore  seems  to  have  attracted 
the  favourable  notice  of  Robert  Adam,  and  this  brought  him  commissions 
for  carpets  for  mansions  built  or  enlarged  by  that  celebrated  architect. 
The  carpet  illustrated  on  Plate  91  is  in  the  red  drawing-room  of  Syon 
House.  The  design  is  in  the  style  which  we  have  learned  to  associate 
particularly  with  the  brothers  Adam.  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the 
craftsman  responsible  for  the  weaving.  His  name,  Thomas  Moore," 
with  the  date  1769,  is  woven  into  the  border.  At  Osterley,  another 
house  associated  very  extensively  with  Robert  Adam's  activities,  the 
Earl  of  Jersey  possesses  several  carpets  which  are  shown  by  the  records 
to  have  been  made  by  Moore.  The  designs  for  four  of  these  are  in  the 
Soane  Museum.  Those  for  the  Tapestry  Room  and  Etruscan  Room 
are  dated  1775  ; that  for  the  State  bedroom  is  dated  1778.  There  is 
no  date  on  the  design  for  the  drawing-room.  The  Soane  Museum  has 
an  extensive  collection  of  Robert  Adam's  designs  for  carpets. 

Thomas  Whitty's  factory  outlasted  the  others.  The  industry  which 

^ A Concise  Account  of  the  Rise  ...  of  the  Society.  . . . By  a Member  of  the  said 
Society,  1763,  p.  58. 


81 


G 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


still  flourishes  at  Wilton  traces  its  origin  to  him.  He  first  started  carpet- 
making at  Axminster^  in  the  Court  House  near  the  churchy  in  1755. 
There  carpets  continued  to  be  made  for  about  eighty  years.  That  factory 
was  succeeded  by  Moody's^  at  Wilton^  where  carpet-making  has  gone 
on  ever  since. 

Among  the  Axminster  products  were  some  very  elaborate  and  costly 
carpets  made  for  the  Pavilion  at  Brighton.  The  expenditure  on  the 
building  and  equipment  of  this  royal  residence  was  very  lavish,  and  the 
carpets  were  in  keeping  with  the  general  scale  of  magnificence.  An 
enormous  carpet  was  made  for  the  Saloon  about  1823.  It  was  shaped 
at  the  ends  to  fit  the  room.  A portion  is  still  preserved  at  Buckingham 
Palace.  The  pattern  is  on  a light  ground,  and  shows  the  influence  of 
the  Chinese  taste  so  conspicuous  in  the  decoration  of  the  Pavilion. 

In  another  carpet,  made  for  the  Music-Room,  the  pseudo- Chinese 
style  is  still  more  marked.  It  is  now  only  a fragment,  but  an  account 
is  given  by  Nash  and  Brayley,^  who  describe  it  as  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom,  its  dimensions  being  61  ft.  by  40  ft.,  and  its  weight  about 
1,700  lb. It  was  made  at  Axminster  to  fit  the  room,  costing  £700. 
The  Saloon  carpet  cost  £620.  Another  carpet,  for  the  Banqueting  Room, 
was  made  at  Axminster  to  Mr.  Jones'  design,  costing  £735. 

An  account  of  the  carpet-knotting  industry  in  this  country  would 
lack  its  natural  counterpart  if  all  reference  were  omitted  to  the  weaving 
of  carpets  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  manufacture  of  carpets  in  the 
south-west  of  Scotland  was  carried  on  with  much  success  in  the  second 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  industry  has  had  an  unbroken  and 
prosperous  career  ever  since.  It  seems  likely  that  hand-knotting  was 
not  adopted  there  at  first,  but  in  1831  the  Trustees  for  Manufacture  in 
Scotland  awarded  two  premiums — of  £150  and  £30 — for  four  Turkey- 
carpets  to  a Kilmarnock  firm.  These  are  said  to  have  been  the  first 
of  that  luxurious  and  costly  type  manufactured  in  Scotland.^  Hand- 
knotted  carpets  continued  to  be  made  in  the  south-west  of  Scotland  for 
about  twenty  years.  Early  in  the  present  century  efforts  were  made 
to  start  carpet-knotting  among  the  fisher-folk  of  Sutherland  and  Caithness, 
but  in  the  end  it  was  found  impossible  to  induce  the  girls  to  settle  down 
to  regular  work.  The  looms  were  removed  to  Glasgow,  where  they 


1 Illustrations  of  Her  Majesty's  Palace  at  Brighton,  1838,  p.  9. 

2 This  is  completely  outclassed  by  a carpet  lately  made  in  Donegal,  weighing  2J  tons. 
® British  Association  Reports,  Glasgow,  September,  1876.  The  Textile  Industries, 

by  James  Baton,  pp.  204-6. 


82 


ENGLAND 


were  kept  going  until  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  There  are  still  deft  fingers 
ready  to  make  carpets  to-day,  whether  knotted  after  the  Turkish  or  the 
Persian  manner.  But  the  mainstay  of  the  carpet  industry  of  Scotland 
has  ever  been  the  use  of  those  ingenious  contrivances  for  producing  a 
pile-surface  by  mechanical  means. 

When  we  come  to  Ireland  we  must  begin  a little  farther  back.  Irish 
**  rugs  **  were  in  demand  in  this  country  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  But  the  rug  **  of  those  days  was  a rough  material,  shaggy 
in  appearance,  perhaps  like  a modern  blanket.  Holinshed  has  a story 
of  a man  who  went  to  a bear-baiting  in  London  on  a frosty  morning 
wearing  a Waterford  rug.  **  The  mastiffs,^'  says  the  Elizabethan 
chronicler,  **  had  no  sooner  espied  him  than  they  set  on  him,  thinking 
him  to  be  a bear.''  It  is  a long  stride  from  the  Waterford  rug  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  days  to  the  Donegal  carpets  of  our  own  times.  Perhaps 
the  chief  link  connecting  them  is  the  quality  of  the  Irish  wool.  The 
hand-knotted  carpet  industry  was  introduced,  or  revived,  in  Ireland 
about  twenty  years  ago.  A factory  was  opened  at  Killybegs  in  1898, 
and  the  work  was  soon  extended  to  other  centres  in  North  and  South 
Donegal.  Before  long,  hundreds  of  workers  were  employed.  Some 
very  good  results  have  been  obtained.  An  imposing  product  of  the 
Donegal  factories  is  in  the  Library  of  Australia  House  in  London.  It 
measures  46  ft.  6 in.  by  23  ft.  The  general  tone  of  the  ground  is  brown. 
There  is  a fine  border  of  wattle  and  vine-leaves.  This  carpet  is  matched 
by  others  of  the  same  manufacture  now  in  this  country.  Others  are 
also  to  be  found  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  and  on  the  Continent,  as  well 
as  in  Canada,  the  United  States,  Egypt  and  South  Africa.  Fine  carpets 
have  also  been  made  in  Kildare  and  in  Queen's  County. 

In  conclusion,  the  carpets  made  by  our  great  craftsman  William 
Morris  must  not  be  forgotten.  It  was  in  1879  that  his  first  experiments 
in  carpet-knotting  were  made  in  Queen  Square.  Then  carpet-looms 
were  set  up  at  Hammersmith,  and  finally  the  work  was  transferred  to 
Merton.  A careful  study  of  the  old  productions  of  the  East  was  the 
foundation  of  his  work.  **  They  show  us  the  way  to  set  about  designing 
such  things,"  he  said.  Modern  carpets,  **  while  they  should  equal  the 
Eastern  ones  in  material  and  durability,  should  by  no  means  imitate 
them  in  design,  but  show  themselves  obviously  to  be  the  outcome  of 
modern  and  Western  ideas." 

Morris  made  some  noble  carpets.  The  large  carpet  made  for  the 
Earl  of  Carlisle's  drawing-room  at  Naworth,  was  finished  in  1881.  It 

83 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


took  nearly  a year  to  make^  and  **  weighed  about  a ton/'  Another  fine 
carpet  was  made  for  the  late  Earl  of  Portsmouth.  It  was  arc-shaped, 
made  so  as  to  fit  the  place  for  which  it  was  destined  at  Hurstbourne. 
The  floral  pattern  is  interrupted  by  three  large  shields  bearing  the  arms 
of  the  Earl  and  the  Countess. 


84 


PART  II 
TECHNICAL 


■ I V I . ■ '(.' .’ ' /■'''■  ''.Iff  ^ 

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Im 


PLATE  S3. 


Ghiordes  prayer-carpet,  late  17th  cen- 
tury. (See  page  54.) 


Chapter  I 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 
(a)  Knotting  and  Weaving 

It  is  essential  to  students  to  have  some  knowledge  of  the  technique 
of  carpets^  for  not  only  does  it  help  in  understanding  and  appreciating 
at  its  proper  worth  any  particular  specimen  standing  alone^  but  it  is 
also  of  the  utmost  importance  in  grouping  together  kindred  pieces^  and 
in  associating  with  such  groups,  when  made,  any  fresh  carpet  that  may 
be  met  with*  In  this  latter  respect  technique  is  of  even  more  importance 
than  design  itself,  at  least  so  far  as  the  finer  subdivisions  are  concerned* 
The  connoisseur  who  identifies  a carpet  by  its  general  appearance  really 
pays  more  attention  to  technique  than  he  is  usually  aware  of,  for  the 
same  design  looks  very  different  when  it  is  rendered  in  various  textures  ; 
and  the  texture,  apart  from  the  design,  produces  an  impression  more 
valuable  for  purposes  of  diagnosis  than  may  be  reali2;ed*  This 
impression  is  made  much  more  vivid  and  reliable  by  an  understanding 
of  the  knotting,  weaving  and  other  technical  details  of  the  specimen 
under  consideration*  Apart  from  this,  moreover,  it  is  easy  to  understand 
that  a weaver  is  more  inclined  to  change  his  designs  than  his  methods* 
The  demand  of  the  market  may  be  for  certain  patterns  at  the 
time  popular ; or  the  beauty  of  rugs  made  in  other  places  and  following 
other  traditions  may  appeal  to  him  so  strongly  that  he  will  copy  their 
designs ; but  there  are  no  such  reasons  to  induce  him  to  depart  from 
his  accustomed  methods  of  weaving*  So  far  as  unorgani2;ed  production 
is  concerned  the  technique  is  a very  reliable  indication  of  the  place  or 
people  responsible  for  the  rug*  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  a highly 
organi2;ed  factory  system,  both  the  design  and  technique  of  some  other 
district  may  be  copied,  and  then  the  question  of  the  identification  of 
the  product  may  be  a very  difficult  or  unanswerable  one*  Luckily  it 
is  in  these  circumstances  that  the  answer  is  of  the  least  consequence* 

In  the  first  place  one  requires  to  distinguish  a hand-made  from 
a machine-made  carpet*  It  is  not  easy  to  give  a simple  rule  to  decide 
the  point ; but  the  inspection  of  a few  pieces,  especially  from  the  back, 
soon  makes  the  difference  obvious  even  to  the  untrained  eye,  and  the 

87 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


perusal  of  the  following  pages  describing  the  making  of  hand-knotted 
carpets  should  afford  positive  indications  by  which  the  matter  can  be 
placed  beyond  all  possible  doubt.  Leaving  the  question  of  machine- 
made  carpets  for  a subsequent  brief  mention^  the  whole  field  of  hand-made 
carpets  can  be  divided  into  two  great  classes — those  with  smooth  faces, 
and  those  with  a pile.  Both  classes  are  textile  fabrics ; which  means 
that  they  consist  essentially  of  two  sets  of  threads — the  warp  and  the 
weft — which  cross  each  other  at  right-angles  and  are  interwoven  so  as 
to  make  a coherent  tissue.  The  smooth-faced  carpets  consist  of  warp 
and  weft  alone  : the  pile  carpets  have,  in  addition,  short  extra  pieces 
of  thread  knotted  to  the  warp-threads,  so  that  their  free  ends  stand  up 
and  form  a surface  similar  to  that  made  by  the  blades  of  grass  in  a meadow. 

Like  other  textile  fabrics  carpets  must  be  made  on  a frame,  which 
is  known  as  a loom.  This  consists  essentially  of  two  horizontal  beams 
or  rollers,  kept  a proper  distance  apart  by  side-pieces.  The  threads  of 
the  warp  are  stretched  between  these  two  beams  and  all  lie  parallel  to 
each  other  and  usually  in  a vertical  position.  When  they  are  placed 
on  the  loom  the  weaving  can  begin.  The  weft-threads  are  put  in  one 
by  one  : the  first  thread  passes  in  front  of  alternate  warp-threads  (suppose 
the  first,  third,  fifth,  etc.),  and  behind  the  remaining  warp-threads  (the 
second,  fourth,  sixth,  etc.) ; the  second  weft-thread  reverses  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  first,  passing  behind  the  odd-numbered  and  in  front  of  the 
even-numbered  warp-threads ; the  third  weft-thread  repeats  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  first,  the  fourth  of  the  second,  and  this  alternate  reversal 
is  carried  throughout  the  whole  of  the  fabric  (Fig.  c,  p.  92). 

The  loom  need  not  be  an  elaborate  structure.  In  its  simplest  form 
it  may  consist  of  two  round  pieces  of  wood,  tied  or  otherwise  fixed  to 
two  adjacent  trees,  one  piece  being  near  the  ground  and  the  other  as 
much  higher  as  the  length  of  the  warp  requires.  On  such  a loom  the 
necessary  tension  of  the  warp  can  be  obtained  by  wedging  the  beams 
further  apart,  or  by  tightening  the  cords  which  lash  them  to  the  trees. 
A more  convenient  arrangement  is  to  have  for  beams  two  rollers  capable 
of  rotation,  fixed  in  a permanent  framework  (Fig.  a).  This  plan  has 
the  advantage  that  the  loom  need  not  be  the  full  height  of  the  carpet ; 
for  a supply  of  warp  can  be  wound  round  the  upper  beam  (thus  often 
called  the  warp-beam)  and  unwound  as  the  finished  part  of  the  carpet 
is,  bit  by  bit,  rolled  round  the  lower,  or  cloth-beam.  With  such  an 
arrangement  the  weavers  can  sit  all  the  time  in  about  the  same  position, 
though  it  is  still  often  found  convenient  to  accommodate  them  on  a plank 

88 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


that  can  be  placed  at  various  heights  on  the  rungs  of  two  ladders.  At 
the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  there  is  a Persian  Carpet-loom  which 
was  in  actual  use  in  a house  in  Kirman  a few  years  ago.  It  has  on  it 
a small  rug,  partly  finished,  and  it  is  accompanied  by  all  the  usual 
implements  of  the  carpet  weaver  (Plate  92A).  A typical  form  of  Turkish 
loom  accommodating  several  weavers  is  shown  in  Plate  923.  The  loom 
is  not  always  vertical,  though  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  so.  Among 
nomad  weavers,  and  especially  in  the  districts  of  Central  Asia,  a 
horizontal  loom  is  quite  common.  The  two  beams  rest  on  the  ground 
and  mostly  have  slots  in  them  through  which  the  side-pieces  pass,  the 
whole  arrangement  strongly  resembling  the  common  embroidery-frame. 
The  weavers  squat  on  the  finished  part  of  the  carpet,  which  lies  a few 
inches  above  the  ground  but  can  easily  be  supported  by  placing  under 
it  pieces  of  wood  or  other  objects.  The  necessary  attitude  is,  however, 
an  uncomfortable  one  for  persons  unaccustomed  to  it. 

The  laborious  method  of  guiding  the  weft-thread  in  its  proper  course 
round  each  warp-thread  separately  can  be  avoided  by  a simple  contrivance 
added  to  the  loom.  A thick  stick  is  thrust  through  the  warp  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  a weft-thread,  only  it  is  placed  far  above  the  place 
where  the  actual  weaving  is  taking  place.  This  stick  divides  the  warp- 
threads  into  two  sets  or  leaves f and  forms  what  is  called  a shed  (Fig.  a). 
All  the  odd-numbered  warps  are  in  one  leaf  and  all  the  even-numbered 
in  the  other.  The  weft-thread,  wound  on  a shuttle,  can  now  be  easily 
passed  between  the  two  leaves  of  the  shed  and  at  once  takes  its  right 
position  in  relation  to  the  warp.  For  the  next  passage  of  the  weft  a reverse 
shed  has  to  be  made.  This  is  effected  by  attaching  all  the  warp-threads 
of  the  back  leaf  of  the  shed  to  a strong  rod,  by  means  of  short  cords  of 
equal  length — an  arrangement  called  a heddle.  If  then  the  rod  is  drawn 
forward  or  suitably  rotated,  the  warp-threads  attached  to  it  will  be  drawn 
in  front  of  the  other  set  and  so  a reverse  shed  is  formed,  through  which 
the  weft-thread  can  be  passed  as  before  (Fig.  b).  It  is  clear  that  one  shed 
is  permanently  set  on  the  loom,  but  the  other  can  be  temporarily  substi- 
tuted for  it  at  will. 

Some  other  accessories  of  the  weaver  must  be  mentioned  here. 
One  is  a heavy  comb-like  implement  for  beating  the  weft  down.  Its 
teeth  pass  between  the  warp-threads,  and  a few  blows  consolidate  the 
latest  rows  of  weft  and  knots  with  the  finished  part  of  the  carpet.  For 
severing  the  pile-yarn  a knife  is  mostly  used,  which  is  held  in  the  right 
hand  while  the  knot  is  tied  with  the  left.  Shears  with  long  and  slightly- 

89 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


curved  blades  are  employed  for  trimming  the  pile  of  the  carpet  to  a 
uniform  level.  Balls  or  skeins  of  coloured  yarn  for  the  pattern  hang 
in  a row  from  the  upper  beam  or  heddle-rod  within  easy  reach  of  the 
weavers.  All  these  accessories  are  illustrated  in  Plate  92. 

As  implied  already 
smooth-faced  carpets  are 
simpler  in  construction  than 
pile-carpets  and^  conse- 
quently, It  is  convenient 
to  describe  the  details  of 
their  technique  first.  They 
are  called  Kilims  (Gilim), 
and  the  most  common  kind 
— which  are  essentially  sim- 
ilar in  technique  to  the 
tapestry- hangings  of  Europe 
— are  often  called  Kara- 
mani,  after  the  province 
of  Karaman  in  Southern 
Asia  Minor,  though  their 
production  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  that  locality 
but  indeed  extends  through 
almost  the  whole  of  the 
carpet-making  regions  of 
the  East. 

The  warp  does  not 
show  in  the  finished  Kilim, 
but  the  pattern  is  entirely 
formed  by  the  weft  which 
is  beaten  down  sufficiently 
to  hide  the  former  com- 
pletely. To  make  a varied 
pattern  the  weft-threads  of  course  must  be  of  different  colours  and  so 
cannot  be  passed  right  across  the  loom,  but  each  thread  is  taken  only 
so  far  as  that  particular  colour  is  needed  and  then  passed  back  again, 
and  so  on  until  a patch  of  colour  of  the  desired  shape  is  formed,  the 
whole  pattern  being  composed  of  many  such  coloured  patches.  If  in  any 
place  the  boundary  between  two  patches  of  colour  is  vertical  (i.e.  parallel 

90 


FIG.  A.— CARPET-LOOM. 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 

to  the  warp)^  it  is  clear  that  a vertical  slit  must  result  there  (Fig.  c)^  for 
no  weft-thread  passes  from  one  patch  to  the  other  to  bind  the  fabric 
together.  This  defect  is  commonly  avoided  by  designing  the  pattern  so 
that  vertical  lines  either  do  not  occur  or  else  are  very  short,  but  the 
weavers  of  Karaman 
and  Kurdistan  often 
make  a feature  of  this 
very  limitation  and  allow 
an  open-work  effect  to 
give  an  added  beauty  to 
their  work. 

From  the  manner 
of  their  manufacture 
Kilims  are  practically 
alike  both  back  and 
front.  Sometimes,  it  is 
true,  short  ends  of  the 
weft  lie  loose  at  the 
back ; but  more  often 
these  are  inwoven  so  as 
to  make  the  two  sides 
indistinguishable.  The 
peculiarities  of  the  tech- 
nique of  Kilims  have 
a great  influence  on  the 
patterns  adopted.  Fine 
details  are  rarely  seen, 
and  the  constant  use 
of  diagonal  or  stepped 
outlines  is  a feature 
which  mostly  enables 
them  to  be  distinguished 

, FIG.  B.— LOOM  WITH  SHED  REVERSED. 

at  a glance. 

Smooth-faced  carpets  of  another  kind  are  known  as  Soumaks.  These 
differ  from  ordinary  Kilims  and  from  all  other  carpets  in  the  way  the 
weft  is  interlaced  with  the  warp.  Each  weft-thread  is  passed  forwards 
in  front  of  four  and  then  backwards  behind  two  warp-threads  (Fig.  d). 
Thus  the  stitches,  as  they  may  be  called,  overlap  each  other  on  the  front 
of  the  carpet,  and  as  they  usually  slope  in  opposite  directions  in  consecutive 

91 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


rows^  a kind  of  herring-bone  effect  is  produced.  At  the  back^  the  shorter 
stitches  form  a series  of  ridges ; but  the  back  is  not  intended  to  be  seen 
and  no  attempt  is  made  to  keep  it  free  from  loose  ends  of  yarn.  The 
normal  texture  of  a Soumak  has  often  to  be  slightly  modified  near  the 
boundaries  of  the  pattern^  for  the  long  stitch  across  four  warp -threads 
would  sometimes  interfere  with  the  finer  details.  Another  difference 
between  Soumaks  and  other  Kilims  is  that  the  former  have  after  every 
one  or  two  rows  of  stitches  an  extra  weft-thready  which  passes  right  across 
the  carpet  but  is  not  visible  when  the  latter  is  finished. 

The  fineness  of  texture  of  Kilims  depends  upon  the  closeness  of 
the  warp -threads,  which  are  usually  spaced  so  that  from  five  to  twenty- four 

fall  within  one  inch.  The 
weft-threads  lie  consider- 
ably closer  together  than 
this,  but  whereas  each 
warp-thread  forms  in  the 
fabric  a fine  rib,  which 
is  easily  perceptible,  the 
exact  si^e  of  the  weft  does 
not  to  any  considerable 
extent  affect  the  appear- 
ance of  the  carpet.  It 
may  be  said  that  there 
are  about  six  times  as 
many  weft -threads  as 
warp -threads  in  a given 
distance. 

Kilims  are  made  more 
quickly  than  pile-carpets  and  are  generally  lighter  in  substance,  as  a 
result  of  which  their  wearing  qualities  are  not  equal  to  those  of  the  latter. 
In  the  East  they  are  largely  used  on  the  floor,  but  in  Western  countries, 
where  perhaps  the  conditions  are  more  severe,  they  are  often  reserved 
for  hangings  or  furniture  coverings,  for  which  purposes  they  are  admir- 
ably adapted. 

Useful  and  beautiful  as  the  smooth-faced  carpets  are,  they  are  much 
excelled  in  importance  by  the  larger  class  of  carpets  with  a pile  surface. 
In  these  the  warp  and  weft  foundation  is  completely  hidden,  as  far  as 
the  front  is  concerned,  by  the  more  or  less  upright  pile.  The  effect 
of  use  is  gradually  to  wear  away  this  pile,  but  as  long  as  any  is  left  the 

92 


FIG.  C.— KILIM  OR  TAPESTRY  WEAVING. 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 

vital  threads  forming  the  foundation  of  the  carpet  are  protected  from 
serious  injury.  Even  the  back  of  the  carpet,  though  it  gets  far  less  wear 
than  the  front,  is  protected  by  the  pile-yarn  passing  round  the  warp- 
threads.  This  is  by  no  means  the  only  advantage  that  a pile  gives.  In 
a Kilim  the  surface  is  composed  of  the  fibres  of  the  yarn  lying  flat  in  the 
plane  of  the  carpet ; in  a pile-carpet  it  is  the  countless  cut-ends  of  the 
fibres  that  are  presented  to  the  eye,  an  arrangement  which  gives  to  the 
surface  a quality  that  no  other 
can.  The  colours  of  the  yarn 
become  richer  and  more  trans- 
parent ; the  contours  of  the  pat- 
tern are  made  softer  and  more 
mysterious,  and  the  tone  of  each 
coloured  area  not  only  varies 
subtly  from  point  to  point,  but 
often  changes  completely  as  the 
spectator  views  it  from  different 
positions. 

The  pile  is  formed  from 
short  pieces  of  yarn,  rarely  more 
than  one  inch  long,  tied  to,  or 
twisted  round,  the  warp-threads 
— the  whole  piece,  including  the 
free  ends,  usually  being  called  a 
knot  or  tuft.  The  knots  are  tied 
in  rows  right  across  the  carpet, 
each  row  being  finished  and 
secured  by  weft-threads  before 
another  row  is  begun.  With  few 
exceptions  the  knots  are  attached 
to  two  adjacent  warp-threads, 
but  there  are  various  ways  in  which  they  may  be  tied.  In  all  Eastern 
carpets,  and  nearly  all  Western  ones,  only  two  kinds  of  knots  are  found. 
They  are  known  as  the  Ghiordes,  or  Turkish  knot,  and  the  Sehna,  or 
Persian  knot.  The  names  are  those  of  carpet-weaving  villages  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Western  Persia  respectively. 

In  the  case  of  the  Ghiordes  knot  the  yarn  lies  across  and  in  front 
of  the  two  warp -threads  and  its  free  ends  pass  round  behind  them  and 
then  emerge  again  between  them.  As  each  pair  of  warp-threads  has 

93 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


its  own  knot  it  will  be  understood  that  consecutive  warp-threads  have 
either  two,  or  no  yarn- ends  passing  forward  between  them,  and  that 
what  may  be  called  the  collar  of  the  knot  is  seen  lying  across  a pair  of 
threads  (Fig,  e). 

In  the  case  of  the  Sehna  knot  the  yarn  completely  encircles  one 
warp-thread  of  a pair ; one  yarn-end  emerges  between  them,  while  the 
other  passes  behind  the  second  warp-thread  and  comes  to  the  front 
outside  it  (Fig,  f).  Thus,  with  the  Sehna  knot  one  yarn-end  emerges 


between  each  pair  of  warp-threads  right  across  the  loom,  and  the  collar 
of  the  knot  is  seen  crossing  one  warp-thread  only ; in  both  knots  the 
free  ends  come  below  the  collar  so  that  the  pile  inclines  to  the  lower 
or  first-woven  part  of  the  carpet* 

The  Ghiordes  knot  is  symmetrical  from  side  to  side  while  the  Sehna 
knot  is  unsymmetrical ; it  follows  that  the  latter  may  be  tied  in  two  ways, 
for  the  encircled  warp-thread  may  be  either  the  right-hand  or  left-hand 
one  of  the  pair,  as  seen  by  the  weaver.  The  right-hand  Sehna  knot  is 
much  more  common  than  the  left-hand,  and  its  pile  tends  to  lie  towards 
the  left,  while  the  pile  of  the  left-hand  inclines  towards  the  right  (Fig* 
g).  If  the  knot  is  known  to  be  of  the  Sehna  variety,  passing  the  hand 
across  the  carpet  will  usually  tell  at  once  of  which  kind  it  is. 

When  the  warp-threads  are  spaced  very  closely  on  the  loom  it  may 
be  impossible  for  them  to  lie  all  in  one  plane,  in  which  case  alternate 
threads  fall  towards  the  back,  and  the  warp  lies  on  two  levels. 
Sometimes  the  depression  of  the  back  set  is  only  slight,  but  it  may  be 

94 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


so  pronounced  that  only  half  the  warp-threads  are  seen  at  the  back  of 
the  carpet.  A Ghiordes  knot  tied  on  a warp  on  two  levels  may  incline 

either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left ; but 
in  the  case  of  the  Sehna  knot^  the  en- 
circled warp-thread  is  always  the  one 
lying  nearer  to  the  front  of  the  carpet 
(Fig.  h).  In  a tightly- woven  carpet 
with  a warp  on  two  levels  it  is  often 
very  difficult  to  be  sure  which  kind  of 
knot  is  used,  because  in  either  case  two 
yarn- ends  emerge  between  every  pair  of 
warp-threads  of  the  front  set.  If  the 
knot  is  a Ghiordes,  a little  probing  will 
usually  show  its  collar  crossing  two  warp- 
threads  ; but  if  this  cannot  be  found, 
then,  though  a Sehna  knot  may  be  strongly  suspected,  the  proof  may 
be  quite  difficult.  It  may  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  Ghiordes  knot  is  rarely 
found  with  a warp  on  very  different 
levels,  and  a Sehna  knot  still  more 
rarely  with  a warp  strictly  on  one  level. 

Both  these  knots  are  sometimes  found 
tied  on  four  instead  of  on  two  threads, 
though  rarely  throughout  the  whole 
of  a carpet.  In  such  a case  the  knot 
itself  is  not  really  different,  for  it  only 
means  that  two  warp -threads  are  taken 
together  and  treated  as  one. 

The  adoption  of  one  or  other  of 
these  knots  is  rather  due  to  custom  than 
to  any  inherent  advantage  of  either.  It 
is  true  that  carpets  of  very  fine  texture 
usually  have  the  Sehna  knot,  and  dis- 
tinctly coarse  ones  almost  invariably 
have  the  Ghiordes,  but  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible to  use  the  latter  for  very  close 
knotting. 

A third  kind  of  knot,  tied  on  a 
single  warp-thread,  is  much  less  com- 

95 


FIG.  G.— LEFT-HAND  SEHNA  KNOT. 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


mon  than  the  two  already  described,  being  found  only,  but  almost 
exclusively,  in  early  Spanish  carpets*  The  yarn  completely  encircles 
the  single  warp-thread,  one  end  crosses  the  other  at  the  back  and  then 
the  ends  come  to  the  front,  one  at  each  side  (Fig.  i).  It  is  tied  only 
on  alternate  warp  - threads ; and  on  that  account,  as  will  be  seen  later, 
is  very  easy  to  recognize. 

When  a row  of  knots,  of  whatever  kind,  has  been  tied,  one  or  more 
weft-threads  are  put  in.  The  most  usual  number  is  two,  in  which  case 
the  thread  is  taken  from  side  to  side  right  across  the  loom,  and  then 
without  being  severed  taken  back  through  the  reverse  shed.  If  only 
one  shoot  (as  it  is  called)  of  weft  is  made  after  a row  of  knots,  then 

the  shoot  after  the  next  row  is 
taken  through  the  reverse  shed. 
Three  or  more  shoots  of  weft 
may  be  found  after  a row  of 
knots,  but  the  larger  numbers  are 
not  often  used  throughout  the 
whole  of  a carpet. 

The  weft  when  beaten  down 
usually  takes  a more  or  less  sinuous 
course  in  the  thickness  of  the  car- 
pet, for  the  warp  is  too  strong  and 
tight  to  be  much  deflected  from  a 
straight  line.  If  the  warp  lies  on  two 
levels  the  weft -threads  through  one  shed  are  necessarily  more  sinuous  than 
those  through  the  reverse  shed ; and  if  the  levels  are  very  distinct  then 
it  will  happen  that  the  weft-thread  through  one  shed  is  quite  straight 
and  undeflected  while  the  other  is  very  sinuous  indeed.  In  many  of  the 
finer  Persian  carpets  with  a warp  on  two  levels,  a common  plan  is  to 
have  uniformly  three  shoots  of  weft  after  each  row  of  knots,  the  middle 
shoot  being  very  sinuous  and  the  other  two  straight  (Fig.  h). 

To  ensure  a carpet  having  even  edges  and  being  free  from  bulges 
or  puckers,  and  of  equal  width  throughout,  it  is  necessary  to  allow  the 
weft  a proper  and  uniform  amount  of  slack  and  then  beat  it  down  so 
that  its  tension  is  the  same  in  each  part  of  the  width  of  the  carpet. 

When  a line  of  weft,  consisting  of  one  or  more  shoots,  is  completed 
the  carpet  is  ready  for  another  row  of  knots.  The  Ghiordes  and  Sehna 
knots  are  tied  on  the  same  pairs  of  warps  as  before,  that  is  they  come 
vertically  above  each  other : on  the  other  hand  the  single-warp  knots 

96 


i/W  M L'\  k'' 


FIG.  I.— SINGLE. WARP  KNOT. 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


are  tied  on  those  warps  left  blank  in  the  previous  row,  and  so  fall  into 
diagonal  instead  of  vertical  lines.  A carpet  with  the  single-warp  knot 
therefore  has  the  easily-noticed  peculiarity  that  diagonal  lines  in  the  pat- 
tern are  much  smoother  in  contour  than  those  in  a truly  vertical  direction. 

The  fineness  of  knotting  in  a pile  carpet  is  a feature  of  great 
influence  in  determining  the  beauty  of  its  texture  and  the  amount  of 
labour  necessary  for  its  production.  It  depends  primarily  upon  the 
closeness  of  spacing  of  the  warp-threads  on  the  loom.  The  number 
of  these  to  the  linear  inch  may  vary  from  about  eight  to  more  than  sixty, 
giving  from  four  to  thirty  or  more  knots  to  the  inch  in  a horizontal  line. 
The  number  of  knots  in  a vertical  line  (i.e.,  in  the  direction  of  the  warp) 
depends  upon  the  fineness  of  the  yarns  employed,  the  number  of  shoots 
of  weft  after  each  row  of  knots  and  also  upon  the  thoroughness  with 
which  the  beating-down  is  carried  out.  These  details  are  mostly  arranged 
so  that  the  height  of  the  knots  is  roughly  equal  to  their  width,  but  it 
mostly  happens  that  the  latter  dimension  is  the  smaller  and  the  ratio  of 
height  to  width  is  commonly  about  four-fifths,  though  sinking  as  low 
as  one-half  in  some  groups  of  carpets. 

The  simplest  way  of  estimating  the  fineness  is  to  compute  the  number 
of  knots  in  a square  inch  of  surface.  This  number  will  vary  from  about 
1 6 to  nearly  i,ooo,  though  in  the  vast  majority  of  carpets  it  lies  between 
50  and  100.  If  there  are  more  than  100  knots  to  the  square  inch  the 
texture  may  be  considered  fine.  Carpets  with  more  than  300  knots  are 
rarely  met  with  and  there  appears  to  be  no  advantage  to  the  appearance 
of  the  carpet  in  pushing  the  fineness  beyond  400  knots  to  the  inch,  though 
phenomenal  pieces  of  such  texture  are  occasionally  seen.  As  far  as 
durability  is  concerned,  a coarser  carpet,  provided  it  is  well  knotted  and 
not  extremely  coarse,  is  more  satisfactory  than  a finer  one. 

Whether  a bit  of  yarn  just  long  enough  for  a knot  is  used  in  making 
it,  or  whether,  as  is  a common  practice,  the  end  of  a long  piece  is  taken 
and  cut  off  when  the  knot  is  tied,  it  is  impossible  to  ensure  all  the  free 
ends  being  of  the  same  length,  so  that  a final  operation  is  to  clip  the 
pile  level  with  shears.  Here  the  Chinese  show  some  of  their  peculiar 
ingenuity,  for  by  cutting  down  the  knots  nearest  to  the  contours  of  the 
pattern,  they  cause  a distinct  furrow  to  be  formed  which  not  only  serves 
to  round  off  the  angularities  of  the  contour  but  also  throws  the  design 
into  relief.  This  effect  of  relief  is  often  increased  by  trimming  somewhat 
closer  the  whole  of  the  pile  of  the  ground. 

In  carpets  other  than  Chinese,  though  the  usual  practice  is  to  have 

97 


H 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


the  pile  as  even  as  possible,  yet  its  length  varies  considerably  in  different 
specimens*  In  some  rugs,  notably  those  from  Sehna  and  Ghiordes, 
the  pile  is  so  short  that  the  collars  of  the  knots  are  scarcely  hidden*  In 
such  cases  the  rug  itself  is  thin,  and  the  pile  stands  upright,  which  makes 
the  surface  lustreless  and  harsh  to  the  touch* 

The  Nomadic  tribes  of  the  Caucasus  and  Kurdistan,  on  the  other 
hand,  prefer  a long  and  sometimes  almost  shaggy  pile,  a choice  which 
results  in  thick  and  mostly  very  durable  rugs*  Such  a pile  of  necessity 
lies  flat,  and  exhibits  to  the  utmost  the  lustre  of  the  wool*  A long  pile 
of  a dull  wool,  as  seen  too  much  in  India,  has  the  least  satisfactory 
appearance  of  any* 

The  treatment  of  the  sides  and  ends  of  a carpet  still  remains  to  be 
mentioned*  At  the  sides  the  returning  weft-threads  by  themselves  form 
a selvedge  and  prevent  the  fabric  from  becoming  unravelled,  but  in  use 
they  would  soon  get  worn  through*  It  is  customary,  therefore,  to  have 
at  the  edge  one  or  more  stouter  warp-threads  and  to  leave  these  free 
from  knots,  but  to  serve  them  with  extra  turns  of  weft,  and  then  to  fortify 
the  whole  with  an  overcasting  of  extra  threads  which  may  form  one  or 
several  cord-like  lines  along  the  side* 

As  the  ends  of  the  warp-threads  are  loose  when  the  carpet  is  removed 
from  the  loom,  unravelling  is  a danger  which  must  be  provided 
against*  Usually  before  the  knotting  begins  a piece  of  plain,  or  of 
tapestry-weaving  is  done  at  the  beginning  of  the  carpet,  and  a similar 
piece  is  added  at  the  top  when  the  knotting  is  finished*  When  the  carpet 
is  taken  from  the  loom  the  loose  ends  of  the  warp  are  either  braided  in 
various  ways  or  they  are  taken  in  groups  of  about  four  to  eight,  which 
groups  are  next  taken  in  pairs  and  knotted  together,  and  this  process 
often  is  repeated  until  there  are  several  rows  of  knots*  In  either  case 
the  carpet  usually  terminates  in  a loose  fringe*  The  lower  end  of  the 
warp  may  consist  of  loops  instead  of  cut-ends,  owing  to  the  way  in  which 
it  was  originally  put  on  the  loom*  These  loops  may  be  treated  as  above, 
but  an  alternative  plan  when  they  exist  is  to  fill  them  up  with  a few  rows 
of  ordinary  weaving  so  that  a true  selvedge  is  formed*  This  cannot  be 
done  at  the  upper  end  of  the  carpet,  for  it  would  be  almost  impossible 
to  have  the  loops  of  warp  there  all  of  the  same  length* 

Many  smaller  points  of  technique,  as  well  as  some  variations  from 
the  normal  methods  described  above,  may  be  very  useful  in  identifying 
carpets ; but  they  can  be  mentioned  more  conveniently  with  the  groups 
in  which  they  are  found* 


98 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


The  structure  of  machine-made  carpets  is  generally  quite  different 
from  that  discussed  above*  It  is  notoriously  difficult  to  devise  a machine 
to  tie  a knot,  though  recently  it  has  been  found  possible  to  reproduce 
the  Ghiordes  knot  on  a machine,  and  the  method  is  employed  commercially. 
The  process  most  in  use,  however,  is  one  founded  on  the  technique  of 
velvet-weaving.  In  this,  besides  the  foundation-warps,  other  warps 
of  much  greater  length  are  woven  into  the  fabric  and  allowed  to  stand 
up  in  a series  of  loops.  These  are  cut  through  in  **  Wilton  **  and  left 
uncut  in  the  **  Brussels  **  carpets.  In  other  methods  loops  of  the  pile- 
yarn  are  held  in  position  by  being  pinched  in  various  ways  by  the  foundation 
threads  : or  lengths  of  chenille  are  first  made  separately  and  then  woven 
with  other  foundation  threads  in  such  a way  that  they  lie  in  the  face 
of  the  fabric.  It  is  by  such  a method  that  the  **  patent  Axminster  ** 
carpets  were  made. 

(b)  Group  Characteristics  of  Early  Carpets, 

The  technique  of  the  oldest  carpets  known  does  not  differ  in 
essentials  from  that  of  those  of  the  present  day,  and  all  the  details  found 
in  them  have  already  been  described  in  the  preceding  chapter,  but  it 
may  still  be  useful  to  take  each  of  the  well-defined  early  groups  in  turn 
and  give  a short  account  of  their  technical  construction. 

The  early  Persian  carpets  with  a woollen  pile  may  be  divided  into 
two  groups — those  made  in  the  periods  roughly  corresponding  to  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

Persian  carpets  of  the  earlier  of  these  two  groups  invariably  have 
the  Sehna  knot.  The  warp  is  on  two  levels  and  there  are  three  shoots 
of  weft  after  each  row  of  knots.  The  warp  is  sometimes  of  silk,  but 
more  often  of  cotton.  The  middle  or  sinuous  shoot  of  weft  is  either 
of  silk  or  cotton,  and  the  other  two  shoots  are  mostly  of  cotton  but  not 
infrequently  of  wool  and  occasionally  of  silk.  The  texture  is  very  fine, 
there  being  on  the  average  about  230  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
pile  is  generally  of  wool,  though  some  metal  thread,  inserted  by  the 
tapestry  method,  is  found  in  a few  examples. 

The  selvedges  and  ends  of  these  early  carpets  rarely  remain  now, 
but  it  appears  that  the  sides  were  usually  finished  with  a single  over- 
casting, and  that  the  ends  had  a simple  warp-fringe — in  fact  that  the 
treatment  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  best  modern  Persian  carpets.  The 
number  of  different  colours  used  was  fairly  constant  and  rather  large, 
being  on  the  average  nine  or  ten.  The  colours  most  frequently  occurring, 

99 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


placed  in  order  of  the  amount  used  of  each,  are  : — crimson  : dark  blue  : 
yellow : orange : ochre  : white  : blue  : light  blue : green : black. 
Other  colours,  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of  occurrence,  are  : — light 
red  : green-blue  : red  : brown  : pale  green  : light  crimson  : pale 

brown.  In  this  and  the  following  lists,  shades  and  colours  not  included 
are  occasionally  found. 

Persian  Carpets  of  the  later  group  also  have  the  Sehna  knot  and 
a warp  on  two  levels  and  in  most  respects  resemble  the  earlier  ones. 
The  warp,  however,  is  generally  of  cotton  : the  sinuous  shoot  of  weft 
is  mostly  of  cotton  and  the  other  two  shoots  are  either  of  cotton  or  wool. 
The  texture  is  not  so  fine  as  in  the  earlier  group,  but  still  the  average 
number  of  knots  to  the  square  inch  is  as  high  as  175.  Metal  thread  is 
not  used.  The  average  number  of  colours  used  is  nine  or  ten  as  before. 
Those  most  frequently  occurring,  placed  in  order  of  the  amount  used, 
are  : — dark  blue  : crimson  : blue  : white  : yellow  : light  blue  : green  : 
orange  : red  : black.  Other  colours  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of 
occurrence,  are  : — green-blue  : ochre  : red  : brown  : purple  : pale 

green. 

It  will  not  be  supposed,  of  course,  that  the  foregoing  descriptions 
apply  to  the  average  standard  of  the  carpets  made  in  the  periods  in 
question,  for  they  are,  and  can  only  be,  based  on  the  carpets  which  have 
come  down  to  us  and  which  were  therefore  the  most  precious  or  the  most 
durable  of  those  made. 

The  carpets  usually  called  Indo-Persian  (see  p.  39)  which  in  point 
of  date  probably  centre  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
or  a little  later,  also  have  the  Sehna  knot,  a warp  on  two  levels  and  three 
shoots  of  weft.  The  warp  is  either  of  silk  or  cotton,  and  for  the  weft 
cotton  is  generally  used  for  all  three  shoots.  There  are  on  the  average 
about  165  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  pile  is  of  wool  with  occasionally 
a little  white  cotton.  The  colours,  which  are  very  bright,  rich  and 
transparent,  number  ten  on  the  average.  Those  most  frequently  occurring, 
placed  in  order  of  the  amount  used,  are  : — crimson  : deep  green- blue  : 
green  : yellow  : orange  : dark  blue  : white  : pale  crimson  : blue  : 
light  blue : black.  Other  colours,  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of 
occurrence,  are  : — pale  brown  : deep  yellow  : deep  purple  : light  red  : 
purple  : dark  brown. 

The  carpets  of  Asia  Minor,  of  the  kind  called  Ushak,  which  date 
from  the  fifteenth  to  the  seventeenth  centuries,  are  invariably  woven 
with  the  Ghiordes  knot.  The  warp  is  of  white  wool  and  lies  on  one 

100 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


level  or  on  two  levels  very  slightly  separated.  The  weft  is  of  red  wool 
and  there  are  two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots.  The  pile  is  of  wool 
with  occasionally  a little  white  cotton^  and  the  texture  is  rather  coarse. 
The  sides  and  ends  have  rarely  been  preserved,  but  it  seems  that  the 
former  were  usually  finished  with  a selvedge  consisting  of  several  cords. 
Traces  of  wide  coloured  webs  at  the  ends  of  many  carpets  make  it  appear 
that  this  was  the  usual  way  of  treating  them. 

The  earlier  of  these  Asia  Minor  carpets — that  is,  those  up  to  about 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  have  on  the  average  about  70  knots 
to  the  square  inch.  The  number  of  different  colours  is  on  the  average 
seven.  Those  most  frequently  occurring,  placed  in  order  of  the  amount 
used,  are  : — red  : dark  blue  : yellow  : white  : black.  Other  colours, 
placed  in  order  of  frequency  of  occurrence,  are : — light  blue : green : 
green-blue  : dark  blue  : light  red  : purple. 

The  later  of  these  Asia  Minor  carpets  have  an  average  of  about 
85  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  average  number  of  different  colours 
is  seven  as  before.  Those  most  frequently  occurring,  placed  in  order 
of  the  amount  used,  are  : — red  : dark  blue  : blue  : yellow  : green  : 
light  blue  : black.  Other  colours,  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of  occur- 
rence, are  : — green-blue  : white  : purple. 

The  Asia  Minor  carpets  commonly  called  Transylvanian  differ 
in  some  respects  from  those  already  described.  The  warp  is  mostly 
dyed,  yellow  being  the  usual  colour ; and  the  weft  is  more  often  yellow 
than  red.  The  average  number  of  knots  to  the  square  inch  is  70.  There 
are  six  different  colours  on  the  average.  Those  most  frequently  occurring, 
placed  in  order  of  the  amount  used,  are  : — red  : yellow  : white  : blue  : 
black.  Other  colours,  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of  occurrence,  are  : — 
light  blue  : purple-red  : light  red. 

A group  of  Turkish  carpets  dating  from  the  sixteenth  century  are 
woven  with  the  Sehna  knot,  which  is  never  used  in  other  Turkish  rugs. 
They  may  be  divided  into  four  classes,  but  it  is  not  certain  that 
carpets  of  the  last  two  were  made  in  Turkey  (see  p.  51)  though 
the  technique  considered  alone  points  that  way. 

Those  of  the  first  class  (see  p.  46)  have  a warp  of  very  fine  yellow 
wool,  apparently  that  of  the  Angora  goat.  The  warp  has  a right-handed 
twist,  and  lies  on  two  levels.  There  are  three  shoots  of  weft,  which 
is  of  wool  usually  yellow  in  colour.  The  pile  is  of  wool,  and  there  are 
on  the  average  85  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  average  number  of 
different  colours  is  seven.  Those  most  frequently  occurring,  placed 

lOI 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


in  order  of  the  amount  used,  are  : — crimson  : yellow  : yellow- green  : 
blue  : green  : light  blue : white*  Other  colours,  placed  in  order  of 
frequency  of  occurrence,  are  : — deep  yellow  : dark  blue  : black. 

The  carpets  of  the  second  class  (see  p.  47)  resemble  those  of  the 
first  in  most  respects.  The  warp  (also  with  a right-handed  twist)  is, 
however,  often  of  silk,  and  is  crimson,  green  or  yellow.  The  knotting 
is  much  finer,  there  being  on  the  average  205  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  average  number  of  different  colours  is  six.  Those  most  frequently 
occurring,  placed  in  order  of  the  amount  used,  are  : — crimson  : yellow  : 
light  blue  : white  : green.  Other  colours,  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of 
occurrence,  are  : — blue  : dark  blue  : black  : yellow-green  : deep  yellow. 

The  third  class  consists  of  carpets  with  arabesque  patterns  of  the 
kind  shown  in  Plate  48  (see  also  p.  51).  Technically,  they  resemble 
the  first  group  very  closely  though  the  texture  tends  to  be  rather  finer. 
The  average  number  of  different  colours  is  five  or  six.  Those  most 
frequently  occurring,  placed  in  order  of  the  amount  used,  are  : — crimson  : 
green : light  blue : yellow : white.  Other  colours,  placed  in  order 
of  frequency  of  occurrence,  are  : — blue  : black  : purple. 

The  fourth  class  comprises  carpets  with  arabesque  pattern  of  the 
kind  shown  in  Plate  47  (see  also  p.  51).  Apart  from  having  the  Sehna 
knot,  they  resemble  in  technique  the  ordinary  Ushak  carpets.  The 
warp  is  of  coarse  white  wool  with  the  usual  left-handed  twist,  and  lies 
on  one  level.  There  are  two  shoots  of  woollen  weft — mostly  red  in  colour. 
The  knots  average  about  80  to  the  square  inch.  The  average  number 
of  colours  is  seven  or  eight.  Those  most  frequently  occurring,  placed 
in  order  of  the  amount  used,  are  : — red  : light  blue  : blue  : white  : 
yellow  : black.  Other  colours,  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of  occurrence, 
are  : — brown  : purple  : dark  blue. 

Spanish  carpets  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  are  made 
entirely  of  wool  and  the  single-warp  knot  is  generally  used.  The  warp 
is  white,  and  the  weft,  which  usually  consists  of  three  or  four  untwisted 
strands,  is  red,  white  or  yellow.  The  average  number  of  knots  to  the 
square  inch  is  no.  The  sides  are  finished  with  a narrow  web  of  plain 
weaving,  which  no  doubt  was  turned  under  the  carpet.  The  ends,  appar- 
ently, had  wide  webs  and  fringes.  There  are  on  the  average  about  six 
colours.  Those  most  frequently  met  with,  placed  in  order  of  the  amount 
used,  are  : — red  : blue  : yellow  : green  : white  : light  blue.  Other 

colours,  placed  in  order  of  frequency  of  occurrence,  are  : — dark  green  : 
light  red  : dark  brown  : bright  yellow  : black  : orange. 

102 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


The  carpets  made  in  England  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  were  clearly  based,  as  far  as  their  technique  is  concerned,  upon 
Asia  Minor  models,  though  important  differences  are  found.  The  warp 
is  of  hemp,  or  perhaps  coarse  flax,  and  it  lies  on  one  level.  The  weft 
is  of  the  same  material  as  the  warp  and  there  is  one  shoot  after  each  row 
of  knots.  The  Ghiordes  knot  is  used,  and  the  pile  is  of  wool.  The 
texture  is  rather  coarse,  there  being  on  the  average  about  65  knots  to 
the  square  inch.  The  sides  were  finished  with  a narrow  band  of  plain 
weaving  and  there  appears  to  have  been  a similar  web  at  the  ends  in  most 
cases.  The  colours  used  were  often  bright  and  each  was  used  in  several 
shades  so  that  the  total  number  of  differently- coloured  wools  was  high. 
Apparently  in  the  seventeenth  century  there  was  a tendency  to  replace 
the  hempen  warp  with  one  of  wool,  and  in  still  later  times  the  warp  was 
more  generally  of  the  latter  material. 

The  following  are  descriptions  of  the  technique  of  those  carpets 
illustrated  in  this  book,  which  it  has  been  possible  to  examine  closely. 
In  each  case  the  colours  have  been  placed,  as  far  as  could  be  judged, 
in  the  order  of  the  amounts  occurring  in  the  particular  specimens  described. 
After  a colour  the  most  important  parts  of  the  design  where  it  is  used 
are  sometimes  specified  and  in  this  connexion  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
border-stripes  are  numbered  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  carpet, 

Persian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum),  15  th-!  6th 

century,  18  ft,  X 9 ft,  10  in,  (See  Plate  i and  p,  19,) 

Warp  : Two-ply  green  silk.  On  two  levels,  45  to  i inch. 
Weft  : White  silk.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool,  Sehna,  21  to  i inch,  470  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Nine,  Crimson  (field ; outer  part  of  2nd  border)  : dark 
blue  (inner  part  of  2nd  border)  : orange  (ist  border)  : white 
(3rd  border)  : blue  : light  yellow  : light  green  : black  : light 
brown, 

Persian  Garden  Carpet  (Wagner  Collection),  ibth-iyth  century, 
17  ft.  5 in,  X 14  ft,  2 in.  (See  Plate  3 and  p,  12,) 

Warp  : Four-ply  white  cotton.  On  two  levels.  33  to  i inch. 
Weft  : Wool,  or  occasionally  silk,  of  various  colours.  Three  shoots 
after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool,  Sehna,  14  to  i inch,  240  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Nine.  Blue  (field)  : light  blue  : white  : yellow  (border)  : 
crimson-red : blue-green : brown : dull  green : black. 

103 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Armenian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  lyth-iSth 
century.  6 ft.  ii  in.  x 6 ft.  (See  Plate  5B  and  p.  16.) 

Warp  : Two-ply  white  wool.  On  two  levels.  16  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  12  to  i inch.  100  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Eight.  Red  (field)  : blue  : white  (ist  border)  : yellow : 
light  blue : dark  blue : brown-black : purple. 

Armenian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  Probably  17th 
century,  ii  ft.  X 6 ft.  4 in.  (See  Plate  8 and  p.  16.) 

Warp : Two-ply  whitish  brown  wool.  On  two  levels.  18  to  i 
inch. 

Weft : Red-brown  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  9 to  i inch.  80  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours : Seven.  Brown-black  (field)  : white  (border) : blue : 

yellow : crimson-red  : light  blue : purple. 

Persian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  i6th  century. 
19  ft.  10  in.  X 13  ft.  (See  Plate  9 and  p.  16.) 

Warp  : Four-ply  white  cotton.  On  two  levels.  22  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Buff  cotton.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  ii  to  i inch.  120  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Ten.  Crimson  (field)  : ochre  (2nd  border)  : dark  blue : 
white  : green-blue  (3rd  border) : blue  : green  : light  blue  : 
light  red : black. 

The  Ardabil  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  Persian ; 
dated  1540.  34  ft.  6 in.  x 17  ft.  6 in.  (See  Plate  ii  and  p.  17.) 

Warp  : Two-ply  yellow  silk.  On  two  levels.  35  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Yellow  silk.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  19  to  i inch.  340  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours : Ten.  Dark  blue  (field)  : crimson  (4th  border ; long 
panels  in  2nd  border)  : white  (3rd  border)  : black  (2nd  border) : 
orange-red  (ist  border) : yellow  (central  medallion  and  corner 
pieces)  : green  (round  panels  in  2nd  border)  : blue : light  blue 
(pattern  of  ist  border) : light  crimson. 

Persian  Carpet  (The  Earl  of  Ilchester).  ibth-iyth  century.  20  ft. 

X 8 ft.  (See  Plate  12  and  p.  20.) 

Warp  : Six-ply  white  cotton.  On  two  levels.  28  to  i inch. 

104 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Weft  : Pale  red  cotton.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  i6  to  i inch.  230  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Thirteen.  Dark  blue  (field)  : deep  crimson  (2nd  border)  : 
blue-green  (pattern  on  ground  of  field)  : light  crimson  (pattern 
on  ground  of  2nd  border)  : buff  (ist  and  3rd  borders)  : yellow 
(pattern  on  ground  of  ist  and  3rd  borders)  : white : light 
blue  : crimson  : brown  : blue  : black : light  blue- green. 

Persian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  Probably  17th 
century.  7 ft.  7 in.  x 5 ft.  5 in.  (See  Plate  14  and  p.  21.) 

Warp  : Yellow  silk.  On  two  levels.  54  to  i inch. 

Weft : Yellow  silk.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  27  to  i inch.  730  to  the  square  inch. 

Metal  Thread  : Gilt-silver  strips  wound  on  a.  core  of  white  or  yellow 
silk.  Tapestry- woven  on  the  upper  layer  of  the  warp,  three 
shoots  being  equivalent  to  one  row  of  knots. 

Colours : Eleven.  Crimson  (medallion  and  border  panels) : dark 
blue  (field) : green  (2nd  border) : light  crimson  (ist  border) : 
white  (3rd  border) : light  blue  : brown  : yellow  : light  green  : 
black : orange. 

Persian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  17th  century. 
24  ft.  6 in.  X 9 ft.  5 in.  (See  Plate  19  and  p.  24.) 

Warp  : White  cotton.  On  two  levels.  31  to  i inch. 

Weft : Two  shoots  of  white  wool  and  one  shoot  of  white  cotton 
after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool.  Sehna.  12  to  i inch.  180  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Eleven.  Dull  crimson  (field) : dark  blue  (outer  border) : 
blue  (inner  border) : white  : yellow  : green-blue  : light  red  : 
light  blue  : light  purple  : black  : purple-brown. 

Persian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  17th  century. 
5 ft.  5 in.  X 10  ft.  4 in.  (See  Plate  20B  and  p.  25.) 

Warp  : White  cotton.  On  two  levels.  18  to  i inch. 

Weft  : White  cotton.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool.  Sehna.  7 to  i inch.  60  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Nine.  Red  : blue  : yellow  : white  : green  : dark  blue  : 
light  crimson : blue-green : black.  The  compartments  are 

variously  coloured  upon  no  fixed  plan. 

105 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Persian  Carpet  from  the  Palace  of  the  Forty  Columns  at  Ispahan 
(fragments  at  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum)*  Late  i6th  century* 
Original  size  71  ft*  X 33  ft*  (See  Plate  21  for  design  and  p*  25.) 

Warp  : Three-ply  white  cotton*  On  two  levels*  24  to  i inch* 
Weft : White  cotton*  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

Knots  : Wool*  Sehna*  15  to  i inch*  180  to  the  square  inch* 
Colours  : Eight*  Crimson  (field)  dark  blue  (2nd  border)  : yellow- 
green  : white  (ist  and  3rd  borders)  : light  crimson : black  : 
brown  (?'  black  of  a different  dye)* 

Persian  Prayer- Carpet  (Mr*  George  Mounsey)*  i8th  century* 
5 ft*  II  in*  X 4 ft*  5 in*  (See  Plate  30A  and  p*  36*) 

Warp  : White  cotton*  On  two  levels*  21  to  i inch* 

Weft : White  cotton*  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

Knots  : Wool*  Sehna*  9 to  i inch*  100  to  the  square  inch* 
Colours : Two*  White  (ground)  : copper-red  in  various  shades* 

Indian  Carpets  (Mr*  Lionel  Harris)*  Early  17th  century*  A* 
Shaped  piece,  14  ft*  7 in*  x 9 ft*  B*  Square  piece,  24  ft*  2 in*  x 9 ft*  2 in* 
(See  Plate  31  and  p*  39*) 

Warp  : White  cotton*  On  two  levels*  26  to  i inch* 

Weft : Pink  cotton*  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 
Knots  : Wool*  Sehna*  13  to  i inch*  170  to  the  square  inch* 
Colours  : Nine*  Crimson  (field)  : Green-blue  (2nd  border)  : light 
blue  : white  : deep  purple  : yellow  : light  crimson  : black  : 
dark  green* 

Indian  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum)*  Early  17th  century* 
4 ft*  8 in*  X 2 ft*  II  in*  (See  Plate  32  and  p*  39.) 

Warp  : Two-ply  silk  (red,  green  or  white)*  On  two  levels*  46 
to  I inch* 

Weft : Red  silk*  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

Knots : Wool*  Sehna*  26  to  i inch*  600  to  the  square  inch* 
Colours  : Twelve*  Crimson  (field)  : yellow-buff  (serrated  leaves) : 
light  green  (border) : blue-green  : dark  blue  : white  : blue  : 
light  red  : deep  yellow  : light  blue  : purple  : dark  purple* 

Indian  Carpet  (The  Girdlers'  Company)*  Dated  1634*  24  ft* 
X 8 ft.  (See  Plate  33  and  p*  40.) 

106 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Warp : Probably  cotton*  30  to  i inch* 

Weft : Probably  cotton* 

Knots  : Wool*  Sehna*  16  to  i inch*  240  to  the  square  inch* 
Colours : Twelve*  Crimson  (field)  : dark  blue  (4th  border)  : 

white  : blue  : light  crimson  : light  blue  : yellow  : light  brown : 
very  light  crimson  : dark  brown  : light  green  : purple-brown* 

Asia  Minor  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum)*  i6th  century* 
9 ft*  6 in*  X 5 ft*  6 in*  (See  Plate  37B  and  p*  48,) 

Warp  : Two-ply  white  wool*  On  two  levels*  17  to  i inch* 

Weft  : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

Knots  : Wool*  Ghiordes*  10  to  i inch*  85  to  the  square  inch* 
Colours  : Ten*  Red  (field)  : dark  blue  (panels)  : green  : white  : 
light  red  (border)  : dark  blue-green  : light  blue  : blue  : black  : 
greenish  yellow* 

Asia  Minor  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum)*  i6th  century* 
7 ft*  X 6 ft*  7 in*  (See  Plate  39  and  p*  47*) 

Warp  : Four-ply  yellow  wool*  On  two  levels*  32  to  i inch* 
Weft  : Crimson  wool*  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 
Knots  : Wool.  Sehna*  13  to  i inch*  210  to  the  square  inch* 
Colours : Eight*  Crimson  (field)  : deep  yellow : light  blue  (ist 
border) : white  : yellow  (2nd  border) : yellow- green  : green  : 
dark-blue* 

Asia  Minor  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum)*  i6th  century. 
9 ft*  4 in*  X 8 ft*  3 in*  (See  Plate  40  and  p*  47*) 

Warp  : Two-ply  green  silk*  On  two  levels*  41  to  i inch* 

Weft  : Crimson  silk*  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

Knots  : Wool  and  white  cotton*  Sehna*  16  to  i inch*  330  to 
the  square  inch* 

Colours  : Seven*  Deep  crimson  (field  and  border)  : white  : dark 
blue  (panels  in  border)  : yellow : green : light  blue : black* 

Asia  Minor  Carpet  (Mr*  George  Mounsey)*  i6th  century*  6 ft* 
II  in.  X 6 ft.  I in*  (See  Plate  42  and  p*  48*)  This  carpet  is  made 
up  from  a larger  one^  of  which  there  is  another  piece  in  the  Circulation 
Collection  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum* 

Warp  : White  wool*  On  one  level*  15  to  i inch* 

107 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Weft  : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  9 to  i inch.  70  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Nine.  Red  (alternate  squares  of  the  field) : dark  green 
(alternate  squares  of  the  field) : white  (pattern  of  border) : 
deep  crimson-red  (ist  border) : green : black : light  blue : 
blue : greenish  yellow. 

Asia  Minor  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  i6th  century. 

5 ft.  8 in.  X 3 ft.  7 in.  (See  Plate  43B  and  p.  48.) 

Warp  : White  wool.  On  one  level.  16  to  i inch. 

Weft : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  12  to  i inch.  95  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours : Seven.  Red  (field ; ist  border) : yellow  (pattern  on 
ground ; 2nd  border  at  sides) : white  (pattern  of  2nd  border) : 
green-blue  (2nd  border  at  ends) : light  blue  (3rd  border) : 
blue : black. 

Asia  Minor  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum),  ifith-iyth 

century.  17  ft.  4 in.  X 8 ft.  2 in.  (See  Plate  44  and  p.  49.) 

Warp  : White  wool.  On  two  levels  only  slightly  separated.  18  to 
I inch. 

Weft : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  (sometimes  three)  after  each  row 
of  knots. 

Knots:  Wool.  Ghiordes.  ii  to  i inch.  100  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Six.  Red  (field  and  2nd  border)  : dark  blue  (central 
medallion,  pattern  on  ground,  and  ist  border)  : dark  green- 
blue  (side  medallions)  : yellow  (3rd  border)  : light  blue : black. 

Asia  Minor  Mat  (Mr.  George  Mounsey).  17th  century. 

3 ft.  6 in.  X 2 ft.  I in.  (See  Plate  46B  and  p.  55.) 

Warp  : Two-ply  white  wool.  On  two  levels.  17  to  i inch. 

Weft : Brown  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots:  Wool.  Ghiordes.  ii  to  i inch.  90  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Eight.  Red  (field)  : white  (end-border) : blue  : light 

red  : light  blue  : green  : purple  : grey-brown. 

Oriental  Carpet  (Mr.  George  Mounsey).  i6th  century.  6 ft.  X 

4 ft.  6 in.  (See  Plate  47  and  p.  51.) 

108 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Warp  : White  wool*  On  two  levels.  22  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Brown  and  red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 
Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  8 to  i inch.  80  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Nine.  Red  (field)  : light  blue  (2nd  border) : blue  (ist 
and  3rd  borders) : white : yellow : brown : black : dark 

blue  : purple. 

Oriental  Carpet  (Mr.  George  Mounsey).  i6th  century. 
6 ft.  3 in.  X 4 ft.  10  in.  (See  Plate  48  and  p.  51.) 

Warp  : Fine  yellow  wool.  On  two  levels.  23  to  i inch. 

Weft : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  10  to  i inch.  120  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Six.  Crimson  (field  and  ist  and  3rd  borders) : green : light 
blue  (central  medallion  and  2nd  border) : yellow : white : black. 

Asia  Minor  Prayer-carpet  (Mr.  George  Mounsey).  Late  17th 
century.  5 ft.  x 3 ft.  9 in.  (See  Plate  56  and  p.  55.) 

Warp  : Two-ply  white  wool  (ends  dyed  yellow).  On  one  level. 
17  to  I inch. 

Weft : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  8 to  i inch.  65  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours : Five.  Red  (field) : yellow  (2nd  border) : white  (ist 
border  and  spandrels) : black : light  blue. 

Asia  Minor  Carpet  (Mr.  George  Mounsey).  i8th  century. 
13  ft.  I in.  X 3 ft.  7 in.  (See  Plate  58  and  p.  56.) 

Warp  : White  wool.  On  two  levels  not  much  separated.  17  to 
I inch. 

Weft : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  10  to  i inch.  160  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Eight.  Red  (field) : green  (border) : purple  (extra  end- 
borders)  : dull  yellow : blue : white : black : dark  blue. 

Chinese  Carpet  (Lady  Cunliffe).  17  ft.  ii  in.  x 4 ft.  (See  Plate 
66a  and  p.  64.) 

Warp  : White  or  pale  blue  cotton.  On  two  levels.  19  to  i inch. 
Weft : White  cotton.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 
Knots  : Silk.  Sehna.  6 to  i inch.  60  to  the  square  inch. 
Metal  Thread  : Woven  on  the  upper  leaf  of  the  warp  by  a process 
similar  to  Soumak  weaving. 

109 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Colours  : Seven*  Rose-red,  faded  (border)  : blue  : green  : yellow  : 
light  blue  : white  : black*  The  ground  of  the  niches  is  in 
gold,  and  of  the  spandrels  in  silver  thread. 

Chinese  Silk  Carpet  (Lieut*-Col*  G*  B*  Croft  Lyons,  F*S*A*)* 

5 ft*  X 3 ft*  2 in*  (See  Plate  66b  and  p*  66*) 

Warp : White  cotton*  On  one  level*  17  to  i inch. 

Weft  : White  cotton*  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

Knots  : Silk*  Sehna*  8 to  i inch*  70  to  the  square  inch* 

Colours  : Four*  Yellow  (field) : green-blue  (border)  : blue  (pattern 
on  border) : black* 

Chinese  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  i8th  century. 

6 ft*  2 in*  X 8 ft*  5 in*  (See  Plate  68  and  p*  64.) 

Warp  : Four-ply  white  cotton*  On  one  level*  14  to  i inch. 

Weft : White  cotton*  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

Knots : Wool*  Sehna*  7 to  i inch*  55  to  the  square  inch. 
Clipped  round  some  of  the  contours* 

Colours  : Eight*  White  (field)  : dark  blue  (3rd  border  and  edging) : 
rose-red  (ist  border)  : light  rose-red : yellow : blue : deep 
yellow : light  purple-red* 

Chinese  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  i8th  century. 

9 ft.  3 in*  X 7 ft*  I in*  (See  Plate  69  and  p*  64.) 

Warp  : Four-ply  white  cotton*  On  one  level*  12  to  i inch. 

Weft : White  cotton*  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool*  Sehna*  5 to  i inch*  30  to  the  square  inch* 

Colours  : Six*  Rose-red  (field)  : dark  blue  (2nd  border  and  edging) : 
yellow  (ist  border) : blue  : white  : deep  yellow* 

Chinese  Knotted  Seat-Cover  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum). 

ifith-igth  century.  4 ft*  10  in*  x 2 ft*  3 in*  (See  Plate  70A  and  p*  65*) 

Warp : Three-ply  white  cotton*  On  one  level*  13  to  i inch. 

Weft  : White  cotton.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool.  Sehna*  7 to  i inch*  45  to  the  square  inch. 
Clipped  round  many  of  the  contours. 

Colours  : Eleven.  Orange-brown  (field  and  border) : dark  blue : 
blue  : light  purple-red  : light  red  : yellow-green  : greenish 

yellow : light  blue : white : grey : purple-grey. 

no 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Chinese  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum),  i8th  century. 
4 ft.  4 in.  X 2 ft.  2 in.  (See  Plate  70B  and  p.  64.) 

Warp  : Four-ply  white  cotton.  On  one  level.  13  to  i inch. 

Weft : Cream-coloured  cotton.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of 

knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna,  7 to  i inch.  45  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours : Eight.  Salmon-red  (field) : dark  blue  (border) : blue : 
yellow : deep  yellow : white  : light  blue : light  salmon-red. 

Chinese  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  Probably  i8th 
century,  ii  ft.  8 in.  x 8 ft.  4 in.  (See  Plate  71  and  p.  65.) 

Warp : White  cotton.  On  one  level.  13  to  i inch. 

Weft : White  cotton.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  5 to  i inch.  35  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Six.  White  (field) : dark  blue  (pattern  on  fields  ist  border 
and  edging) : blue  : deep  yellow  : apricot-red  : yellow. 

Chinese  Pillar  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  i8th 
century.  8 ft.  3 in.  x 3 ft.  3 in.  (See  Plate  72  and  p.  65.) 

Warp  : White  cotton.  On  one  level.  12  to  i inch. 

Weft  : White  cotton.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool.  Sehna.  6 to  i inch.  38  to  the  square  inch. 
Clipped  round  many  of  the  contours. 

Colours : Eleven.  Purple-red  (ground) : yellow : deep  yellow : 
greenish  yellow : white  : red : light  red  : very  light  red : 
blue : dark  blue : grey-brown.  Some  colours  are  hard  to 
distinguish  owing  to  fading. 

Chinese  Pillar  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  i8th 
century.  7 ft.  8 in.  x 4 ft.  2 in.  (See  Plate  73  and  p.  65.) 

Warp : White  cotton.  On  one  level.  13  to  i inch. 

Weft : White  cotton.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool.  Sehna.  5 to  i inch.  32  to  the  square  inch. 

Clipped  round  many  of  the  contours. 

Colours : Twelve.  Yellow  (ground) : dark  blue : white : light 
blue  : red  : greenish  yellow  : deep  yellow  : light  red  : light 
yellow  : purple-red  : very  light  red  : grey-black.  Some  colours 
are  hard  to  distinguish  owing  to  fading. 

Ill 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Eastern  Turkestan  Rug  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  iSth-igtli 
century.  3 ft.  7 in.  x 2 ft.  9 in.  (See  Plate  75B  and  p.  66.) 

Warp  : Five-ply  white  cotton.  On  two  levels.  15  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Three-fold  white  cotton  (some  brown  wool).  Three  shoots 
after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  6 to  i inch.  40  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours  : Seven.  Red  (field)  : blue  (2nd  border) : yellow : dark 
brown  (ist  and  3rd  borders) : ochre : light  blue : white. 

Spanish  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  i6th  century. 
14  ft.  II  in.  X 6 ft.  10  in.  (See  Plate  77B  and  p.  70.) 

Warp  : Two-ply  white  wool.  25  to  i inch. 

Weft  : White  wool.  One  shoot  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  X Wool.  Single-warp,  ii  to  i inch.  135  to  the  square 
inch. 

Colours  : Eight.  Red  (field  and  2nd  border) : dark  green  (ist 
border) : white  : blue  : yellow  : orange  : light  blue  : black. 

Spanish  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  15th  century. 

6 ft.  8 in.  X 4 ft.  (See  Plate  78  and  p.  69.) 

Warp  : Two-ply  white  wool.  21  to  i inch. 

Weft : Threefold  white  wool.  One  shoot  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool.  Single-warp.  10  to  i inch,  no  to  the  square 

inch. 

Colours : Seven.  Red  (field) : blue  (2nd  border) : dark  green- 
blue  : yellow : black  (ist  border) : white : orange. 

Spanish  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  Late  15th  century. 

7 ft.  6 in.  X 5 ft.  4 in.  (See  Plate  79  and  p.  71.) 

Warp  : White  wool.  20  to  i inch. 

Weft : White  wool.  One  shoot  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool.  Single-warp.  1 1 to  i inch.  1 10  to  the  square 

inch. 

Colours : Seven.  Red  (field)  : green : dark  blue : white  (3rd 

border  and  ist  extra  end-border) : blue  (2nd  border) : black 
(ist  border  and  2nd  and  3rd  extra  end-borders)  : yellow. 

Spanish  Carpet  (the  Hon.  H.  D.  McLaren,  C.B.E.,  M.P.).  Late 
15th  century.  15  ft.  X 2 ft.  ii  in.  (See  Plate  80  and  p.  71.) 

Warp  : White  wool.  16  to  i inch. 

112 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Weft  : White  wooL  One  shoot  (fourfold)  after  each  row  of  knots. 
Knots  : Wool.  Single- warp.  lo  to  i inch.  8o  to  the  square 
inch. 

Colours : Seven.  Black  (ground) : light  blue : yellow : white : 
light  red  : purple  : green. 

Spanish  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum),  i6th  century. 
9 ft.  7 in.  X 5 ft.  II  in.  (See  Plate  8i  and  p.  71.) 

Warp : White  wool.  33  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Red  wool.  One  shoot  (threefold)  after  each  row  of  knots. 
Knots : Wool.  Single- warp.  16  to  i inch.  270  to  the  square 
inch. 

Colours : Six.  Blue  (field) : red  (border  and  panels) : yellow 

(pattern  on  border  and  panels)  : white  (pattern  on  field)  : light 
blue  : green. 

Finnish  Rug  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  Dated  1799.  (See 
Plate  84  and  p,  73.) 

Warp : White  flax.  On  one  level.  10  to  i inch. 

Weft : Fine  white  wool.  Four  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 
Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  2 to  i inch,  ii  to  the  square  inch. 
There  is  also  a pile  at  the  back  of  the  rug^  formed  by  white 
woollen  knots  tied  after  every  8 shoots  of  weft. 

Colours : Eight.  Rose-red  (border) : black  (field) : blue : light 
blue  : white  : green  : yellow  : light  crimson. 

Two  French  Savonnerie  Carpets.  Late  17th  century.  (Mobilier 
National^  Paris.)  15  ft.  10  in.  X 29  ft.  and  12  ft.  7 in.  X 28  ft.  9 in. 
(See  Plates  85  and  86  and  p.  74.) 

Warp : Flax.  On  two  levels.  22  to  i inch. 

Weft : Flax.  Three  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  10  to  i inch,  no  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Many. 

English  Knotted  Panel  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  Dated 
1600.  I ft.  9 in.  X 3 ft.  6 in.  (See  Plate  87B  and  p.  79.) 

Warp  : Three-ply  hemp.  On  one  level.  13  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Three-ply  hemp.  One  shoot  after  each  row  of  knots. 
Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  8 to  i inch.  55  to  the  square  inch. 

113 


I 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Colours : Nine,  Dark  green  (ground) : blue : crimson : red : 

yellow : white : orange : light  crimson : black, 

English  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum),  Dated  1603, 
16  ft,  8 in,  X 7 ft,  8 in,  (See  Plate  88  and  p,  79,) 

Warp : Hemp,  20  to  i inch. 

Weft : Hemp,  One  shoot  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots : Wool,  Ghiordes,  9 to  i inch,  95  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Seven,  Dark  green-blue  (field) : green  : yellow  : white  : 
crimson  : blue  : orange, 

English  Carpet  (Lady  Hulse),  Dated  1614,  ii  ft,  9 in,  x 8 ft, 
5 in,  (See  Plate  89  and  p,  79,) 

Warp  : Hemp,  14  to  i inch. 

Weft : Hemp,  One  shoot  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool,  Ghiordes,  9 to  i inch,  60  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Many,  Shades  of  green,  yellow,  red  and  blue  : purple  : 
white : black, 

English  Carpet  made  at  Exeter,  Dated  1757,  14  ft,  9 in,  x 

12  ft,  (See  Plate  90  and  p,  81.) 

Warp  : White  wool.  On  two  levels,  19  to  i inch. 

Weft : Wool  of  various  colours.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of 
knots. 

Knots  : Wool,  Ghiordes,  8 to  i inch,  80  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours : Many  bright  colours.  The  ground  is  blue, 

English  Carpet  at  Syon  House  (The  Duke  of  Northumberland), 
Dated  1769,  34  ft,  5 in,  X 14  ft,  2 in,  (See  Plate  91  and  p,  81,) 

Warp : White  wool.  On  two  levels  not  much  separated,  9 to 
I inch. 

Weft  : Black  (some  coloured)  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row 
of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool,  Ghiordes,  4 to  i inch,  17  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Twenty  or  more, 

(c)  Materials 

It  may  be  stated  that  nearly  every  raw  material  that  can  be  used 
for  textile  purposes  has  been  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets, 

1 14 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


but  many  are  so  rarely  met  with  that  they  can  be  left  out  of  practical 
consideration.  The  important  textile  fibres — wool,  cotton  and  silk, 
made  into  yarn — constitute  the  whole  substance  of  most  carpets,  and 
if  to  these  be  added  flax,  hemp,  jute,  and  metal  thread,  every  other 
material  can  be  neglected.  Of  the  above  substances,  wool  is  by  far  the 
most  important.  It  wears  well,  dyes  easily  and  is  pleasant  in  appearance, 
and  as  it  can  be  used  for  warp,  weft  and  pile,  many  carpets  are  made 
of  it  alone.  The  wool  of  both  sheep  and  goats  is  used,  and  in 
practice  a distinction  need  not  be  made  between  the  kinds.  The  natural 
colour  of  wool  ranges  from  white  to  black,  and  in  substance  it  passes 
by  imperceptible  gradations  from  fine  fibres,  easily  mistaken  for  silk, 
to  long,  coarse  hair  resembling  that  of  the  horse.  The  wool,  or  hair, 
as  it  is  more  often  called,  of  the  camel  is  also  largely  used,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  dye  and  is  mostly  left  in  its  natural  colour.  When  wool  is  used 
for  warp,  that  of  a comparatively  coarse  staple  is  chosen,  and  it  is  usually 
spun  into  a rather  hard-twisted  two-ply  yarn,  which  is  sometimes  dyed, 
though  more  often  left  white,  or  whatever  its  natural  colour  may 
be.  On  the  other  hand,  a woollen  weft  is  mostly  dyed — red  or 
brown  being  favourite  colours — and  is  only  slackly  twisted,  or  perhaps 
may  consist  of  two  or  more  strands  not  twisted  together  at  all.  For 
the  pile,  wool  stands  pre-eminent,  and  it  is  here  that  the  finest  and  most 
lustrous  kinds  are  most  esteemed.  It  is,  of  course,  mostly  dyed,  and 
consists  of  yarn  of  two  or  more  strands,  not  tightly  spun. 

After  wool,  cotton  is  the  fibre  most  used.  For  the  warp  it  is  usually 
undyed  and  consists  of  several  strands  spun  together.  For  the  weft 
it  is  often  dyed  blue  or  pink  and  is  loosely  spun,  an  exception  being  that 
the  very  sinuous  shoot  between  two  straight  ones  (Fig.  h)  must  be 
a fine  and  tightly-spun  yarn.  Although  admirably  suited  for  warp  and 
weft,  cotton  is  less  satisfactory  for  the  pile.  It  wears  well,  but  is  dead 
in  appearance  and  tends  to  look  dirty  in  course  of  time ; and  though 
it  can  be  dyed  without  difficulty  the  colours  fade  and  lose  their  beauty 
sooner  than  those  on  wool.  For  these  reasons  it  is  seldom  used  for  the 
pile,  though  it  is  found  in  the  rugs  of  Multan,  and  sometimes,  in  small 
quantities,  in  old  Turkish  rugs,  where  a pure  white  colour  is  required. 

Silk  is  a material  adaptable  for  all  purposes,  though  it  has  not  the 
wearing  qualities  of  wool.  Even  in  the  East  it  is  costly  and  can  only 
be  used  in  expensive  carpets.  Sometimes  a rug  made  entirely  of  silk  is 
seen,  but  more  often,  even  when  the  pile  is  of  silk,  the  warp  and  weft 
are  of  cotton,  which  in  modern  rugs  is  often  mercerized.  On  the  other 

115 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


hand^  in  many  of  the  finest  old  Persian  carpets  a silken  warp  and  weft 
is  found  associated  with  a woollen  pile.  For  this  there  is  a sound  reason 
in  the  fact  that  a very  fine  yarn  of  reeled  silk  is  stronger  than  a 
woollen  one  of  similar  si2;e^  whereas  a coarser  woollen  yarn^  even  if  not 
so  strong  as  a silken  one,  has  at  least  an  ample  margin  of  strength. 

Of  the  less  common  materials,  flax,  or  linen,  is  occasionally  substituted 
for  cotton  in  Eastern  carpets,  but  its  occurrence  may  be  regarded  as  almost 
accidental.  Coarse  flax,  or  perhaps  hemp,  was  the  material  used  for 
the  foundation  of  the  earliest  English  knotted  carpets.  Jute  is  only 
used  in  very  inferior  hand-made  carpets,  though  of  wide  employment 
in  machine-made  ones.  The  last  material  on  the  list — metal  thread 
— stands  on  a different  footing  from  the  rest.  It  is  sometimes  used 
in  parts  of  the  surface  of  a carpet  to  give  an  unusually  rich  appearance. 
The  thread  consists,  as  a rule,  of  silk  or  other  yarn  covered  over  with 
a twisted  strip  of  silvered  or  gilt  metal.  It  is  never  used  for  the  foundation 
of  a carpet  and  is  never  knotted,  but  whether  employed  in  a Kilim  or  in 
a pile-carpet  it  is  inserted  either  by  the  tapestry  method,  as  used  for  the 
weft  of  an  ordinary  Kilim,  or  else  by  a process  very  similar  to  that  of 
Soumak  weaving.  Metal  thread  had  the  disadvantage  of  tarnishing  badly 
and  is  almost  unknown  in  modern  pile-carpets, 

(d)  Dimensions  and  Shape 

Even  the  size  and  shape  of  a carpet  allow  some  conclusions  to  be 
drawn  with  regard  to  its  provenance  or  classification.  Very  large  carpets 
are  certainly  only  made  by  non-nomadic  peoples  : whereas  a want  of 
regularity  in  shape,  such  as  a difference  between  the  widths  of  the  ends 
or  a tendency  to  lie  unevenly,  is  evidence  that  the  carpet  in  question 
was  made  by  nomads,  A carpet  woven  on  a roughly-made  loom,  or 
one  which  had  to  be  taken  out  of  the  loom  and  remounted  several  times, 
or  rolled  up  for  weeks  on  end,  can  scarcely  be  as  regular  in  appearance 
as  one  made  under  more  stable  conditions  with  better  appliances.  The 
size  of  the  tents  used  by  nomadic  people  limits  the  dimensions  of  their 
carpets,  as  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  contain  a tall  or  wide  loom. 
Moreover,  nomadic  people  have  no  need  themselves  for  large  and  heavy 
carpets  which  are  difficult  of  transport,  and  nomad  carpets  were,  until 
quite  recently,  only  manufactured  for  their  own  use.  For  this  reason 
the  size  of  their  carpets  is  narrowly  limited  ; the  width  varying  from  4 to 
5|-  ft.,  and  the  length  rarely  exceeding  two  and  a half  to  three  times  the 
width.  But  even  the  carpets  of  non-nomadic  people,  as  long  as  only 

116 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


their  own  consumption  was  catered  for,  tended  to  have  certain  definite 
proportions.  For  instance,  the  rooms  of  Persian  houses  are  for  certain 
reasons  generally  oblong  in  shape,  and  a conventional  arrangement  of 
the  floor-covering  becomes  customary  (Fig.  j).  I is  the  show-piece 
{khali),  the  borders  of  which  are  covered  by  the  other  three  carpets  in 
order  to  preserve  it,  with  the  result  that  the  long  and  narrow  carpets 
II  and  III — known  as  kanara,  or  in  English  often  as  runners  — are 
largely  used  in  passing  up  and  down  the  room.  IV,  the  divan- cover 
(sedjadeh)  is  used  most  of  all,  for  members  of  the  household  and  visitors 
sit  upon  it. 

As  the  European  demand  increased, 
and  as  the  custom  grew  for  buyers 
to  commission  carpets  in  Persia  and 
Asia  Minor,  they  naturally  gave  the 
local  workers  not  only  instructions  as 
to  the  pattern  but  also  as  to  the  shape 
and  si2;e  they  required.  Carpets  so 
ordered  were  designed  to  correspond 
with  European  requirements,  and  to- 
day carpets  of  any  proportions  and 
dimensions  may  be  obtained  by  any- 
one who  orders  them. 

Whereas  rugs  for  use  on  the  floor 
are  generally  rectangular  in  shape, 
other  articles,  such  as  bags,  saddle- 
covers  or  tent-bands,  are  naturally 
of  such  shapes  and  sizes  as  their  special  use  dictates.  Even  rugs  for 
Oriental  use  are  sometimes  found  with  rounded  corners,  re-entrant  angles 
or  other  peculiarities  of  shape,  and  were  obviously  made  thus  in  order 
to  fit  into  special  positions.  In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  there 
is  a fragment  of  a Persian  border  which,  running  partly  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees  across  the  warp  and  weft  and  partly  parallel  to  the 
weft,  apparently  came  from  the  corner  of  a shaped  carpet. 

An  average  size  for  kanara,  or  runners,  is  about  3 X 15  ft.  A very 
common  size  for  rugs  is  about  4I  X ft.,  most  prayer-rugs  being  of 
these  dimensions.  Larger  than  this,  rugs  can  be  found  of  all  sizes  up 
to  about  15  X 20  ft.,  above  which  size  specimens  are  rarer.  That  still 
larger  carpets  were  made  even  centuries  ago  is  witnessed  by  the  great 
Ardabil  carpet,  which  measures  17^^  X 34^  ft.,  and  the  carpet  made  for 

117 


zr 

r" 

“J 

I 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

\ 

1 

1 

IL  ' 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

! 

! 

1 

1 

1 

z 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 

1 

I 

! ^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

FIG.  J.— PLAN  OF  PERSIAN  ROOM. 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


the  Palace  of  the  Forty  Columns  at  Ispahan^  which,  judging  from  the 
scale  and  pattern  of  the  remaining  fragments  and  the  si2;e  of  the  hall  where 
it  was  placed,  must  have  been  four  times  the  size  of  the  Ardabil  carpet, 

(e)  Colour  and  Dyeing 

The  chief  attraction  of  Oriental  carpets  is  perhaps  to  be  found  in 
the  charm  of  their  colouring.  This  view  is  supported  by  a study  of 
some  of  the  Nomadic  rugs,  whose  simple  geometrical  patterns,  though 
inoffensive  and  even  well-balanced,  possess  little  artistic  interest  when 
seen  in  monochrome,  but,  when  rendered  in  colour  with  Oriental  skill, 
at  once  become  endowed  with  a beauty  at  once  satisfying  and  difficult 
to  analyse.  An  incredible  richness  of  colour  and  wealth  of  colour-com- 
bination is  to  be  found  in  Oriental  rugs.  Between  the  dark  Beluchistan, 
whose  sombre  character  is  all  the  more  noticeable  because  of  the  white 
patches  it  contains,  and  the  bright  Ghiordes  with  its  delicate  prismatic 
hues,  one  may  find  in  rugs  every  colour  with  which  a kind  Heaven  has 
endowed  the  flowers  of  our  fields.  And  as  the  flowers,  however  brilliant 
and  varied  their  colours,  always  harmonize  with  each  other,  so  the  colouring 
of  old  Oriental  rugs  never  strikes  us  as  glaring,  in  spite  of  its  many  and 
powerful  contrasts. 

To  say  that  the  Oriental  has  an  instinctive  power  of  managing  colour 
is  not  to  give  him  more  than  his  due,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
instinct  is  of  little  service  when  traditional  methods  are  abandoned,  and 
even  when  his  instinct  is  admitted  it  goes  a very  short  way  towards  explaining 
how  his  effects  are  produced. 

One  reason  why  harshness  of  contrast  is  avoided  is  that  strongly 
contrasting  colours  are  usually  separated  by  a line  of  neutral  tint,  such 
as  black  or  white,  or  of  some  intermediate  colour  ; but  though  this  device 
may  be  effective  against  a close  inspection,  it  can  scarcely  be  sufficient 
when  the  carpet  is  viewed  from  a distance,  as  then  the  effect  of  such  a 
line  would  be  imperceptible. 

A better  explanation  probably  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  colours 
generally  used  are  far  darker  in  tone  and  much  less  vivid  in  hue  than 
is  realized  by  the  eye.  A knot  removed  from  a carpet  and  viewed  apart 
from  it  looks  far  greyer  and  darker  than  the  patch  of  colour  of  which 
it  formed  part ; and  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  match  a colour  in  a rug  by 
the  eye  alone,  unaided  by  actual  contact  of  the  yarns,  it  is  surprising 
what  an  error  can  be  made.  What  looks  a pure  white  in  a carpet  will 
often  turn  out  to  be,  when  contrasted  with  white  paper,  a half-tone  of 

ii8 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


considerable  depth.  Manufacturers  complain  of  the  great  difficulty  they 
find  in  getting  the  whites  of  their  carpets  rights  and  this  difficulty  possibly 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  even  experience  shrinks  from  using  yarn  so  much 
darker  than  the  whites  appear  in  the  model  which  is  being  copied^  or 
are  wished  to  look  in  the  new  carpet.  The  extreme  crudeness  to  be  seen 
in  many  machine-made  carpets  will  often  be  found  on  a critical  examination 
to  be  due  not  so  much  to  an  incorrect  disposition  of  the  colours  as  to 
an  excess  of  brilliancy  in  the  tones  of  the  dyes. 

It  is  not,  however,  only  by  avoiding  excessive  contrasts  that 
harmonious  results  are  achieved.  The  colours  must  be  in  correct 
proportions  and  in  patches  of  the  right  si2;e,  and  in  these  respects  the 
Oriental  owes  much  to  his  willingness  to  follow  tradition.  He  uses 
much  the  same  dyes  as  his  fathers,  he  reproduces  the  same  paper  designs, 
or  copies  successful  rugs  without  materially  altering  the  scale  or  pro- 
portions of  their  patterns ; and  though  the  small  changes  he  makes  may 
gradually  lead  to  the  evolution  of  new  types,  yet  he  is  always  ready  to 
abandon  any  modification  which  does  not  result  in  improvement.  The 
Oriental  does  not  indulge  in  that  wild  striving  for  originality  now  so  pre- 
valent in  the  West,  which,  though  sometimes  leading  to  fresh  beauty 
and  inspiration,  is  too  often  rewarded  only  by  disappointment.  When 
all  this  is  said,  it  still  is  likely  that  many  old  carpets  were  less  pleasing 
when  new  than  they  are  to-day.  Time,  bringing  with  it  fading  and  wear, 
must  have  had  much  effect  in  adding  softness  and  subtlety  to  many  of 
the  more  brilliant  carpets,  but  it  certainly  will  not  do  to  ascribe  their 
delightful  effect  chiefly  to  time's  mellowing  influence. 

There  is  no  mystery  about  the  nature  of  the  dyestuffs  used  in  the 
past,  even  if  we  do  not  know  the  exact  details  of  their  manipulation ; 
and,  of  course,  many  of  the  tales  told — for  instance,  that  the  wonderful 
colours  were  due  to  the  grinding  up  of  rubies  and  sapphires — will  not 
bear  serious  consideration. 

The  blues  are  probably  invariably  derived  from  indigo,  which, 
as  is  well  known,  is  obtained  by  steeping  the  leaves  of  the  indigo  plant 
in  water.  The  reds  are  produced  by  madder — the  root  of  a plant — 
treated  with  various  mordants  ; or  by  Kermes,  which  consists  of  the 
dried  bodies  of  insects  that  live  on  the  oak  or  on  a species  of  cactus.  In 
later  times  cochineal,  the  Mexican  equivalent  of  Kermes,  has  been 
imported  as  a satisfactory  substitute.  No  natural  yellow  dyestuff  is  quite 
as  permanent  as  those  for  red  and  blue,  but  saffron,  Persian  berries  and 
turmeric  have  all  been  used  successfully.  Catechu  (or  Cutch)  gives  a 

119 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


good  brown  colour^  and  black  may  be  obtained  by  logwood  in  conjunction 
with  an  iron  salt  such  as  ferrous  sulphate.  This  last  dye  has  a somewhat 
corrosive  effect  upon  wool,  and  in  course  of  time  may  cause  it  to  disappear 
completely.  Natural  black  wool  may  be  used  instead,  but  like  all  undyed 
animal  fibres  will  fade  rather  quickly. 

The  secondary  colours  are  produced  by  dyeing  successively  with 
two  of  the  primaries,  but  they  never  seem  to  last  quite  as  well  as  the 
latter  or  to  be  quite  so  rich,  and  it  is  no  doubt  on  this  account  that  they 
are  used  in  comparatively  small  proportions  in  old  carpets. 

Though  the  general  nature  of  the  dyestuffs  used  is  fairly  constant 
throughout  the  East,  yet  various  districts  specialise  in  the  production 
of  certain  shades  of  colour,  either  from  choice  or  because  local  peculiar- 
ities, such  as  the  quality  of  the  water  or  facilities  for  obtaining  particular 
grades  of  dyestuffs,  make  the  production  of  such  shades  easy.  The 
brick-reds  of  Asia  Minor,  the  rich  crimsons  of  Persia,  and  the  deep  wine- 
reds  of  Central  Asia  are  notable  instances ; but  there  are  many  subtler 
colours  which  are  highly  characteristic  of,  and  often  peculiar  to,  certain 
districts,  and  accordingly  most  useful  for  purposes  of  identification. 

European  manufacturers  assert,  and  not  without  justification,  that  the 
methods  of  dyeing  in  Europe  are  far  superior  to  the  primitive  ones  of 
the  East.  It  is  a fact  that  carpets  are  hardly  ever  found  without  differences 
of  shade  in  colours  which  were  intended  to  be  the  same  throughout, 
and  often  the  difference  is  so  great  that,  if  it  did  not  occur  in  a way  quite 
unconnected  with  the  design,  as  for  instance  in  the  plain  ground,  it  might 
be  supposed  that  different  hues  were  really  intended. 

The  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  is  that  the  primitive  methods 
employed  in  dyeing  are  far  too  unscientific  to  ensure  the  same  result 
on  different  occasions.  It  is  difficult  for  nomadic  tribes  to  carry  supplies 
of  wool  sufficiently  large  to  obviate  the  necessity  for  dyeing  more  before 
the  carpet  is  finished,  but  even  if  they  do  so,  their  custom,  forced  upon 
them  by  necessity,  of  using  small  pots  for  vats,  prevents  them  from  mixing 
much  of  the  dye  at  one  time.  These  difficulties  are  still  present,  though 
in  a lesser  degree,  with  the  sedentary  weavers,  so  that  the  irregularities 
of  dyeing  are  less  noticeable  in  their  work. 

The  differences  of  colour  then,  which  can  be  seen  like  stripes  running 
right  across  the  carpet,  are  by  no  means  intentional  but  are  inseparable 
from  the  whole  method  of  production.  This  element,  which  would  be 
found  annoying  in  a modern  European  carpet,  gives  an  additional  charm 
to  the  simple  product  of  the  East,  just  as  we  delight  in  the  twisted  streets 

120 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


and  crooked  roofs  and  corners  of  an  old  town,  whereas  the  slightest 
irregularity  or  the  smallest  incline  in  the  straight  front  of  a new  building 
would  be  intolerable  to  the  eye. 

Leaving  out  the  unintentional  variations  of  colour,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  number  of  different  hues  and  shades  in  a single  Oriental  carpet 
is  by  no  means  large,  ranging  as  it  does  from  four  to  about  twelve. 
A very  large  proportion  of  the  area  of  a carpet  is  worked  in  three  or  four 
colours,  and  three  or  four  others  may  be  used  in  moderate  quantity; 
but  if  still  more  are  employed  they  are  almost  negligible  in  amount. 

In  spite  of  all  their  disadvantages  it  is  generally  admitted  that 
the  Oriental  dyer  of  the  past  produced  colours  which  for  beauty  and 
permanence  have  never  been  excelled ; but  unfortunately  the  superiority 
of  the  Oriental  dyes  does  not  exist  now  in  the  same  degree  as  it  did  in 
bygone  days.  The  later  colours  are  often  very  glaring,  and  many  of 
them  will  not  stand  washing  or  exposure  to  the  sun.  This  deterioration 
is  the  result  of  Western  influence,  and  its  beginnings  can  be  traced  fairly 
accurately  to  the  years  1865-70.  During  that  period  aniline  dyes, 
which  were  invented  in  1859,  began  to  be  used  in  the  East.  Their 
brilliancy,  the  ease  with  which  they  could  be  mixed,  as  well  as  their 
comparative  cheapness,  seduced  the  Oriental  dyer  just  as  they  did  his 
brother  in  the  West.  These  brilliant  colours,  unfortunately,  are  often 
not  permanent ; it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  those  first  introduced 
never  were.  Many  of  them  fade  quickly  in  sunlight  and  come  off  when 
washed  or  even  wetted.  Naturally  the  employment  of  such  colours 
in  a carpet  is  simply  disastrous,  and  the  disadvantage  has  been  recognised 
both  in  the  West  and  the  East*  In  1910  an  embargo  was  placed  in 
Persia  upon  the  import  of  chemical  dyes  either  in  solid  or  liquid  form, 
but,  nevertheless,  these  materials  are  still  used  considerably,  largely  on 
account  of  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  applied. 

The  worthlessness  of  the  early  aniline  dyes  for  producing  permanent 
colours  led  to  a prejudice  against  all  synthetic  dyes,  of  which  the  aniline 
colours  are  but  one  small  branch,  a prejudice  which  is  very  slow  to  dis- 
appear. And  yet  the  chemists  have  made  immense  strides  since  Dr. 
Perkin  discovered  mauve.  The  chemical  nature  of  many  of  the  vegetable 
dyestuffs  (including  indigo  and  madder)  has  been  discovered ; it  is  now 
possible  to  make  them  synthetically  on  a commercial  scale,  and  the  product 
is  every  bit  as  good  as  the  original,  except  perhaps  so  far  as  impurities 
in  the  latter  may  give  a pleasing  irregularity.  More  important  is  the 
fact  that  new  dyes  are  being  discovered  which  surpass  the  older  ones 

121 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


in  point  of  resistance  to  light  and  other  influences,  and  which  supply 
the  designer  with  fresh  colours,  even  if  the  colours  are  not  more  beautiful 
than  those  already  known.  In  spite  of  these  facts — possibly  in  ignorance 
of  them — it  is  very  common  still  for  writers  to  use  the  arguments  levelled 
against  the  aniline  dyes  of  more  than  forty  years  ago ! It  is  so  certain 
that  the  future  lies  with  synthetic  dyes  that  it  seems  a pity  to  entertain 
any  prejudice  on  the  subject  or  to  do  anything  which  is  likely  to  retard 
their  proper  development.  At  the  same  time,  unsound  dyes,  whether 
natural  or  chemical,  should,  of  course,  be  discouraged  in  every  way, 
and  buyers  can  do  much  to  abolish  the  cruelly  wasteful  system  by  which 
good  materials  and  much  labour  are  thrown  away  in  producing  an  article 
which  will  not  stand  the  test  of  time. 

The  vividness  of  some  modern  dyes,  quite  apart  from  the  question 
of  their  soundness,  and  the  consequent  garishness  of  rugs  in  which  they 
are  employed,  has  led  to  the  baneful  practice  of  chemically  washing 
the  surface  in  order  to  tone  down  the  colours  and  produce  immediately 
a mellow  effect.  The  processes  are  kept  secret  as  far  as  possible,  but 
they  seem  to  consist  of  application  of  acids  or  of  sea-water.  The 
immediate  effect  is  often  pleasing,  and  no  doubt  some  of  the  milder 
agents  are  not  harmful ; but,  unfortunately,  it  happens  that  the  wool 
is  seriously  damaged  when  the  treatment  has  been  severe.  At  its  best 
the  method  produces  an  effect  which  is  better  left  to  the  slower  influence 
of  time,  and  chemically  washed  rugs  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  though 
some  classes  of  the  best  modern  rugs  are  practically  never  left  quite 
untouched. 

It  is  rather  consoling  to  reflect  that  even  in  older  times  many  of 
the  troubles  of  the  present  must  still  have  been  existent.  The  best-dyed 
rugs  fade,  and  many  magnificent  old  rugs  may  be  seen  in  which  some 
of  the  colours  have  completely  changed.  Also  there  seem  to  be  few 
freshly  dyed  yarns  which  are  quite  unacted  upon  by  water.  Very  fine 
and  undoubtedly  genuine  silk  rugs  of  the  seventeenth  century  were 
recently  sold  in  London,  of  which  the  colours  came  off  easily  on  a damp 
cloth.  It  is  probable  that  they  had  never  been  cleaned.  The  usual 
fate  of  a rug  some  centuries  old  is  to  be  washed  many  times,  and  though 
at  first  the  colours  may  have  come  off  to  a slight  extent,  eventually  no 
such  effect  would  be  perceived,  and  the  lightest  colours  would  by  that 
time  have  become  so  toned  that  the  slight  contamination  would  be 
invisible.  It  is  not  fair  to  condemn  utterly  a modern  rug  because  its 
pure  whites  have  become  slightly  tinged  with  the  adjacent  colours. 

122 


Chapter  II 


THE  DESIGN  OF  CARPETS 

A discussion  of  the  design  of  carpets  can  well  start  with  the 
consideration  of  the  ways  in  which  carpets  are  mostly  used,  for  the 
proper  treatment  of  the  design  must  be  based  upon  such  a consideration* 
In  the  first  place  it  should  be  remembered  that  a carpet  is  usually  placed 
flat  on  the  floor  and  that  it  is  meant  to  be  walked  upon,  that  it  is  generally 
seen  from  some  distance  away  and  that  it  is  liable  to  be  looked  at  from 
all  directions. 

The  first  of  these  conditions  points  to  the  adoption  of  a design 
which  will  not  be  impaired  by  being  fore-shortened,  and  the  second 
indicates  a conventional  treatment  as  being  the  most  suitable.  A 
naturalistic  treatment  always  gives  a certain  suggestion  of  relief  to  a 
design,  and  if  the  realism  is  carried  to  the  extent  of  showing  the  shadows 
of  the  objects  portrayed,  then  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  the  uncomfortable 
feeling  that  one  has  to  walk  on  an  uneven  surface. 

The  third  condition — that  the  carpet  will  often  be  seen  from  a 
distance- — leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  pattern  must  be  fairly  bold 
to  be  effective.  It  does  not  follow  that  the  carpet  will  never  be  near 
the  eye.  As  it  is  avowedly  a work  of  art,  it  may  at  any  time  be  examined 
closely,  and,  apart  from  this,  in  the  East,  at  all  events,  it  is  customary 
to  sit  on  the  floor,  in  which  case  no  great  distance  separates  the  carpet 
from  the  eye.  There  is  accordingly  no  logical  reason  against  having 
fine  detail  in  the  design  as  long  as  it  is  secondary  to  the  general  arrangement 
of  the  masses. 

In  the  next  place,  as  the  carpet  may  be  seen  from  all  sides,  it  is 
advisable  to  avoid  any  important  feature  in  the  design  which  must,  in 
order  to  be  appreciated,  be  viewed  from  a particular  direction.  This 
rules  out  all  pictorial  subjects  on  a large  scale  from  consideration  as  being 
suita  le  for  inclusion.  If  small  pictorial  subjects,  human  figures,  animals 
or  trees  are  included,  then  they  should  be  repeated  several  times  in  the 
composition  with  different  orientations,  so  that  some  will  be  upright 
from  any  point  of  view.  An  exception  may  be  made  to  this  practice 
if  the  piece  is  intended  to  be  seen  only  from  one  direction.  The  chief 

123 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


instance  of  this  is  the  prayer-rug^  which  is  always  deliberately  planned 
so  that  its  design  is  best  seen  when  it  is  in  use*  Tent-bags  or  door- 
hangings  would  be  other  legitimate  exceptions ; but  as  it  happens  that 
these  are  mostly  made  by  people  who  favour  geometrical  ornament, 
the  liberty  that  might  be  claimed  is  rarely  exercised.  Exceptions  are 
also  found  where  they  are  perhaps  not  justified  (see  Plate  58),  but  in 
these  cases  the  effect  of  the  rug  is  displeasing  when  seen  from  the  wrong 
point. 

Another  reason  why  deliberately  pictorial  subjects  are  unsuitable 
is  that  parts  of  a carpet  are  often  hidden  by  furniture  or  other  objects, 
and  if  part  of  the  picture  cannot  be  seen,  the  whole  effect  may  be  spoiled. 
On  the  other  hand,  repeating  patterns  and  devices,  symmetrical  in  them- 
selves or  symmetrically  arranged,  are  especially  suitable  for  decorating 
an  object  which  may  be  partly  concealed,  for  when  such  are  employed 
the  mind  can  follow  the  design  even  where  it  eludes  the  eye. 

The  above  argument  in  favour  of  a conventional,  bold  and  symmetrical 
treatment  in  the  design  of  carpets  may  perhaps  appear  sufficient,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  to  rely  upon  theory  alone,  for  the  conclusion  is  amply 
borne  out  by  the  immemorial  practice  of  the  East. 

The  technique  has  also  a certain  influence  upon  design.  It  has 
already  been  explained  how  in  Kilims  the  change  of  colour  in  the  weft 
causes  vertical  slits  in  the  fabric,  which  are  mostly  avoided  by  the 
adoption  of  slanting  or  stepped  outlines.  This  does  not  occur  in  pile 
carpets,  but  there  are  limitations  of  another  nature.  The  surface  of  a 
pile-carpet  is  not,  from  the  designer's  point  of  view,  capable  of  indefinite 
subdivision,  but  it  may  be  regarded  as  atomic  in  structure,  and  the 
atom  or  unit  of  surface  is  a single  knot.  Every  design  must  be  interpreted 
in  relation  to  this  unit.  The  knots  each  occupy  a small  square,  or  more 
often  a small  oblong  space,  and  they  are  arranged  regularly  in  rows  and 
columns.  The  narrowest  line,  therefore,  that  can  be  made  is  one  con- 
sisting of  a single  line  of  knots ; and  curves  can  only  be  represented 
by  a succession  of  straight  lines,  alternately  vertical  and  horizontal, 
whose  shortest  length  is  the  height  or  width  of  one  knot.  These 
considerations  at  once  put  a limit  to  the  fineness  of  detail  and  the  delicacy 
of  drawing  which  is  possible  with  a knotted  surface.  The  size  of  each 
knot  is  dependent  upon  the  fineness  of  the  texture,  so  that  the  finer  the 
texture  the  smaller  are  the  details  that  can  be  rendered  and  the  smoother 
are  the  curves. 

This  is  no  doubt  the  chief  reason  why  the  designs  are  more 

124 


THE  DESIGN  OF  CARPETS 


conventional  in  the  coarser  carpets*  A blossom  that  can  be  delicately 
rendered  in  a fine  carpet  may,  in  one  of  coarse  texture,  be  so  angular 
in  outline  as  to  become  a mere  geometrical  rosette,  so  that  in  such 
circumstances  there  is  considerable  temptation  to  rely  exclusively  upon 
geometrical  forms. 

The  colouring  of  carpets,  no  less  than  the  design,  tends  to  be 
conventional,  and  perhaps  a correspondence  can  be  traced  between 
the  degree  of  conventionalization  in  each.  In  the  finer  and  more 
naturalistic  carpets  the  blossoms  and  leaves  usually  have  their  proper 
colours  ; in  those  rather  more  conventional  there  is  a tendency  to  keep 
the  colours,  red,  white,  yellow  and  blue  for  the  flowers,  green  or 
black  for  the  leaves,  and  green,  brown  or  black  for  the  stems ; but  in 
carpets  with  geometrically  drawn  floral  forms,  the  colours  will  be  found 
used  indiscriminately  and  without  any  relation  to  the  objects  portrayed. 

A most  striking  aspect  of  the  designs  of  Eastern  carpets — one  not 
peculiar  to  them  among  works  of  art  and  yet  developed  perhaps  to 
the  greatest  extent  in  their  case — is  the  way  in  which  the  same 
patterns  are  repeated  again  and  again  in  rugs  of  a given  period,  and  even 
are  handed  down  with  slight  modifications  from  age  to  age.  It  is  not 
often  that  a rug  is  found  which  has  no  well-known  feature  in  the  design, 
and  in  fact  the  matter  can  be  put  more  strongly,  for  it  can  be  asserted 
that  very  few  carpets  are  met  with  in  which  every  detail  of  the  pattern 
cannot  be  found  with  very  little  search  in  some  other  rug. 

To  illustrate  this,  it  may  be  said  that  a collection  of  about  200  border- 
stripes  may  be  made  which  will  include  at  least  95  per  cent,  of  all  those 
to  be  found  in  Persian  rugs,  whether  ancient  or  modern. 

This  persistence  of  pattern  which  runs  throughout  the  art  of  the 
East  is  due  to  the  inclination  of  the  craftsman  to  let  well  alone.  It 
might  be  thought  at  first  that  such  a system  would  be  unsatisfactory 
because  giving  a feeling  of  want  of  variety  in  design  and  poverty  of  invention 
in  the  weavers.  Such  a feeling,  if  it  exists  at  all,  is  entirely  outweighed 
by  the  pleasure  of  meeting  with  designs  already  known  and  in  tracing 
the  gradual  changes  that  take  place  in  them  in  the  course  of  time. 
The  familiar  has  as  much  charm  as  the  novel,  and  a design  sanctioned 
by  custom  can  rarely  be  without  merit.  If  all  carpets  were  made  with 
entirely  different  designs,  the  greatest  interest  of  the  carpet-collector 
would  have  vanished. 

The  adherence  to  type  is,  of  course,  most  manifest  in  the  rugs  of 
the  same  district,  or  made  by  people  of  the  same  race,  and  so  is  of  great 

125 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


value  in  the  identification  of  carpets.  It  is  rather  the  details  of  the  design 
than  the  general  character  that  give  the  most  help  in  this  problem,  but 
one  principle,  which  is  of  general  application,  is  that  geometrical  designs 
are  most  favoured  by  the  nomadic  and,  consequently,  the  least  cultured 
people ; while  a floral  basis  and  especially  a naturalistic  treatment  are 
usually  associated  with  a sedentary  population  having  superior  technical 
appliances,  and  a greater  incentive  to  the  rendering  of  intelligible  forms 
induced  by  their  manner  of  life. 

An  analysis  of  the  design  of  carpets,  having  regard  to  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  pattern  as  well  as  to  the  treatment  of  the  details,  is 
of  great  use  in  acquiring  familiarity  with  patterns  found  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  carpet-making  world,  and  in  learning  the  true  principles 
upon  which  the  most  pleasing  designs  are  based. 

The  general  arrangement  and  massing  of  the  pattern  of  a carpet 
may  be  considered  quite  apart  from  the  nature  and  drawing  of  the  details, 
and  will  be  a useful  preliminary  to  the  review  of  the  latter.  A great 
majority  of  carpets  are  rectangular  in  shape,  and  the  natural  place  first 
to  put  ornament  in  an  empty  rectangle  is  round  the  edge.  Thus  at 
once  is  the  border  introduced,  and  it  will  soon  be  noticed  that  nearly 
every  carpet  has  a border  separated  off  from  the  rest.  In  Oriental  carpets 
the  border  goes  round  the  whole  carpet  and  is  separated  from  the  field 
by  straight  boundary  lines.  Generally  it  is  divided  into  from  two  to 
about  ten  parallel  bands,  each  of  which  contains  a repeating  pattern. 
These  bands  (which  may  be  called  **  border-stripes  run  continuously 
round  sides  and  ends  of  the  carpet,  and  generally  each  has  the  same 
pattern  throughout.  The  end  borders  have  the  same  number  of  rows 
of  knots  in  their  width  as  the  side  borders  have,  but  as  the  knots  are 
mostly  shorter  in  a vertical  direction,  it  follows  that  the  end  borders 
are  generally  narrower  than  the  side  borders,  and  it  may  be  remarked 
in  passing  that  a quick  comparison  of  the  widths  will  usually  indicate 
the  proportions  of  each  knot.  It  very  rarely,  if  ever,  happens  in  Eastern 
carpets  that  the  ornament  of  either  border  or  field  encroaches  across 
the  hard  line  that  separates  them,  though  in  Western  carpets  this  is  done 
very  frequently.  Sometimes  there  will  be  an  extra  and  external  border- 
stripe  at  one  or  both  ends  of  the  carpet,  but  it  is  not  common  and  only 
occurs  in  rugs  of  Central  Asia  and  very  rarely  in  those  of  Turkey.  An 
extra  internal  border-stripe  is  also  found  at  the  ends  of  some  Asia  Minor 
prayer-rugs. 

The  kinds  of  patterns  found  in  the  border-stripes  may  now  be  briefly 

126 


THE  DESIGN  OF  CARPETS 


reviewed.  In  the  narrowest  stripes,  consisting  of  a few  rows  of  knots 
or  even  a single  row,  there  may  be  very  simple  geometrical  patterns, 
such  as  squares  of  alternate  colours,  Vandykes,  barber^s-poles  and  the 
like,  all  of  which  are  found  even  in  rugs  of  a naturalistic  type. 

In  the  wider  stripes,  three  main  systems  of  arrangement  must  be 
considered.  In  the  first,  the  space  is  filled  with  a succession  of  detached 
devices,  which  may  either  be  all  alike,  or  of  different  kinds,  mostly  only 
of  two  occurring  alternately  (Plate  198  (3  and  5)  ).  When  these  devices 
are  in  the  nature  of  leaves  or  sprigs,  they  are  often  arranged  in  contrary 
diagonal  directions  so  as  to  give  the  effect  of  a continuous  organic  line. 
(Plates  iiiA,  and  196  (ii) ).  In  the  second  system  there  is  a wavy  stem 
running  along  the  border,  from  which  leaves,  blossoms,  buds  or  other 
devices  depend  (Plate  202  (i  to  7) ).  Such  an  arrangement  is  very  common 
in  Persian,  less  so  in  Caucasian,  and  comparatively  rare  in  Turkish 
carpets. 

The  third  system  is  less  common  than  the  first  two.  In  it  a 
succession  of  devices  extends  along  the  centre  line  of  the  border-stripe, 
each,  as  it  were,  growing  out  of  the  last  one  (Plate  193).  These  devices 
may  appear  quite  geometrical,  but  probably  are  mostly  derived  from 
a floral  origin. 

Other  patterns  which  might  be  included  in  the  previous  types  are 
noticeable  rather  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  devices  than  upon  their 
arrangement.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  borders  with  inscriptions, 
which  range  from  the  legible  verses  and  texts  of  many  Persian  specimens, 
to  the  debased  Kufic  letters  found  in  old  Turkish  and  later  Caucasian 
carpets  (Plates  14,  43B,  63).  Many  border  patterns  also  are  based  upon 
the  S-form,  which  takes  very  varied  shapes  (Plates  194  (22),  196  (5,  9), 
198  (6) ).  Other  borders  have  a succession  of  panels,  often  of  two  shapes, 
which  themselves  can  be  filled  with  ornament  of  various  kinds  (Plate 
49).  More  rarely  the  space  is  covered  with  an  all-over  diaper  pattern, 
as  in  some  Kulas  (Plate  100). 

A somewhat  different  border-stripe  is  made  by  a line  passing  along 
the  middle  on  such  a course  that  the  space  on  one  side  of  it  is  not  only 
the  counterpart  but  is  also  of  the  same  form  as  that  on  the  other.  The 
two  sides  are  usually  rendered  in  different  colours  and  the  pattern  may 
be  called  **  reciprocal  **  or  **  counterchanged  **  (Plates  199  (17) ; 202 

(20)). 

The  field  of  a carpet — that  is,  the  space  left  when  the  border  has 
been  subtracted — may  be  decorated  in  very  many  ways,  the  most  obvious 

127 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


of  which  is  to  fill  it  with  an  all-over  repeating  pattern  which  may  be 
held  to  include^  as  an  extreme  case,  a perfectly  plain  surface*  After 
a plain  field,  the  simplest  patterns  include  small  spots  or  geometrical 
diapers,  which  from  a short  distance  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
an  undecorated  ground*  The  spots  may  by  degrees  develop  into  floral 
or  geometrical  figures  of  more  or  less  elaboration*  Among  such  figures 
may  be  mentioned,  as  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  floral  sprigs  and 
cone-devices*  Great  variety  may  be  given  to  these  patterns  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  colouring ; for  example,  the  devices  in  the  same  rows, 
whether  vertical,  diagonal  or  horizontal,  may  be  coloured  alike  (to  give 
a striped  effect),  or  many  other  systems  may  be  adopted* 

Other  repeating  patterns  are  afforded  by  the  large  group  of  lattices ; 
either  constructed  of  simple  lines  or  of  elaborate  scrolls,  stems  or  leaves* 
The  interspaces  of  such  lattices  are  often  occupied  by  detached  devices 
of  various  sorts*  Some  rather  elaborate  patterns  are  so  frequently  used 
as  to  have  acquired  special  names  which  are  very  useful  for  speedy 
reference* 

One  of  these,  known  as  the  **  Herati,*'  consisting  of  an  assemblage 
of  rosettes,  blossoms  and  small,  curved,  serrated  leaves,  based  on  a vague 
framework  of  stems,  may  be  seen  illustrated  on  Plates  147,  148  and  155* 
This  is  found  only  in  Persian  rugs  or,  in  a debased  form,  in  a few  others 
based  on  the  Persian*  Another  pattern  of  rosettes,  blossoms  and  leaves, 
more  formally  arranged,  is  called  the  **  Mina  Khani  **  and  is  illustrated 
on  Plates  149, 150  and  166*  Still  another  is  the  **  Guli  Hinnai,"'  consisting 
of  small  upright  sprigs  of  flowers*  The  last  two  are  equally  Persian 
in  character  with  the  Herati*  A somewhat  similar  pattern,  found  very 
often  in  Indian  rugs,  consists  of  a lattice  with  several  different  kinds 
of  floral  sprigs  in  the  various  compartments*  A repeating  pattern 
peculiar  to  early  Turkish  rugs  is  shown  on  Plate  43B*  In  this  the  arabesques 
always  seem  to  be  in  yellow  on  a red  ground* 

There  are  other  patterns  which,  while  resembling  those  already 
mentioned,  do  not  repeat  regularly  throughout  the  field*  Among  these 
is  a very  famous  one,  known  as  the  **  Shah  Abbas,''  because  it  was  so 
common  in  Persian  rugs  of  his  time*  It  consists  of  an  assemblage  of 
palmettes,  blossoms,  leaves  and  cloud-bands,  arranged  evenly,  but 
without  formal  repetition,  throughout  the  field  (see  Plate  28)*  Such 
a pattern  is  capable  of  infinite  modifications,  and  may  introduce  among 
the  other  motives  vases,  animals,  trees  and  many  other  devices* 

Still  more  elaborate  patterns  of  curving  stems  and  flowers  are  very 

128 


THE  DESIGN  OF  CARPETS 


common  in  the  early  Persian  silk  carpets,  and  in  the  modern  rugs  of 
Tabriz  and  Kashan,  though  they  rarely  fill  the  whole  field  (see  Plate 

A less  common  scheme  than  many  mentioned  above  is  the  division 
of  the  field  into  narrow  parallel  bands,  either  vertical  or  diagonal,  each 
of  which  contains  a pattern  of  the  same  character  as  those  of  carpet  borders 
(see  Plate  164A). 

Sometimes  much  more  irregularly  arranged  patterns  are  found 
distributed  fairly  evenly  over  the  field ; but  such  usually  occur  only  in 
the  more  barbaric  rugs.  In  Caucasian  carpets,  for  instance,  it  is  quite 
common  for  the  field  to  be  filled  with  small  geometrical  or  floral  devices 
without  any  mutual  connexion,  scattered  capriciously  all  over  (see  Plate 

117)- 

When  the  ornament  is  not  distributed  regularly  throughout  the 
field,  there  must  be  part  of  the  latter  to  which  extra  prominence  is  given, 
and  the  parts  which  naturally  call  for  such  treatment  are,  first  of  all, 
the  middle  of  the  rug,  and,  next,  the  four  corners.  Accordingly,  it  is 
often  found  that  there  is  in  the  middle  a panel  or  medallion,  of  more 
or  less  compact  form,  but  with  a tendency  to  be  longer  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  rug.  Medallions,  as  all  such  devices  may  be 
conveniently  called,  of  many  shapes  occur ; the  commonest  being 
circular,  hexagonal,  ogival  or  lobed.  Sometimes  there  are  two  or  more 
concentric  medallions ; and  very  frequently  the  medallion  has  small 
projecting  pieces  or  panels  at  each  end,  when  it  is  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  a pole-medallion  (see  Plates  9,  169). 

The  corners  of  the  field  are  often  filled  with  shaped  pieces  resembling 
the  quarter  of  a central  medallion,  and  not  infrequently  these  corner- 
pieces  repeat  the  pattern  contained  in  the  central  medallion  of  the  same 
rug. 

Corner-pieces  may  extend  until  they  meet  at  the  ends  and  even 
at  the  sides  of  the  field,  so  as  to  form  either  a kind  of  arch  at  each  end, 
or  a shaped  inner  contour  to  the  field.  Such  a shaped  contour  gives 
an  effect  approaching  that  of  a central  medallion,  but  can  usually  be 
distinguished  on  account  of  its  being,  as  it  were,  obviously  moulded 
from  without  and  not  from  within. 

That  part  of  the  field  not  occupied  by  the  central  medallion  and 
corner-pieces  may  be  left  plain  or  filled  with  any  of  the  repeating  or 
irregular  ground  patterns  already  described  ; and  the  space  within  the 
medallion  and  corner-pieces  is  also  sometimes  filled  with  such  patterns, 

129 


K 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 

but  is  more  often  occupied  with  less  formal  ornament  having  more  relation 
to  the  space  it  fills* 

In  a Kanara.  or  any  carpet  whose  length  is  considerably  more  than 
the  widths  instead  of  a single  central  medallion^  there  often  are  two  or 
more  in  a line,  and  these  are  not  always  detached  but  may  be  connected 
by  a narrow  neck  (Plate  174). 

The  multiplication  of  medallions  can  be  carried  to  a greater  extent 
still,  and  they  may  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  field  than  on  the  centre- 
line* A very  common  pattern  of  the  Turkish  carpets  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  was  one  which  included  one  or  more  large 
medallions  on  the  middle  line  and  several  incomplete  medallions  of  another 
design  against  the  boundaries  of  the  field  (see  Plate  44)* 

The  number  of  medallions  may  be  increased  until  the  resulting 
design  merges  into  the  class  of  repeating  patterns*  A good  example  of 
this  is  afforded  by  the  rugs  of  Central  Asia  which  so  often  have  a pattern 
of  repeated  octagons,  with  diamond-shaped  figures  between  them  (see 
Plate  179)* 

In  ail  the  schemes  of  design  already  mentioned  the  field  has  been 
treated  as  a whole,  but  it  can  also  be  divided  into  several  separate  panels, 
each  with  a design  of  its  own,  though  not  necessarily  different  from  the 
others*  The  most  common  plan  is  to  divide  the  length  of  the  field  into 
three  or  more  panels,  as  in  Plates  no,  136,  but  it  can  also  be  divided  into 
four  panels  by  cross-lines,  as  in  the  Katchli ''  rugs  of  Central  Asia 
(Plate  182),  and  of  course  many  other  systems  of  subdivision  are  possible, 
though  not  often  seen* 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  important  type  of  design 
with  an  unsymmetrical  field  found  in  prayer-rugs*  These  are  carried 
about  by  the  devout  Moslem  and  used  by  him  when  at  prayer*  At  one 
end  of  the  field  there  is  an  arch,  which  forms  a niche-shaped  space,  occupy- 
ing most  of  the  field*  When  in  use,  the  arched  end  of  the  rug  is  pointed 
in  the  direction  of  Mecca,  the  holy  city,  and  the  worshipper  also  faces  that 
way*  The  ground  of  the  niche  is  often  left  plain  or  lightly  filled  with 
ornament,  but  the  spandrels  above  the  arch  are  more  richly  decorated* 
The  rugs  of  Asia  Minor  usually  have  a wide  border,  and,  consequently, 
a field  so  long  in  proportion  to  its  width  that  a niche  occupying  the  whole 
of  it  would  appear  unduly  attenuated*  In  the  prayer-rugs  it  is  therefore 
usual  to  reduce  the  length  of  the  field  by  having  one  or  more  extra 
horizontal  border-stripes,  or  panels,  at  the  ends  inside  the  real  border 
(see  Plate  loi)* 


130 


THE  DESIGN  OF  CARPETS 


The  designs  of  the  great  majority  of  Oriental  rugs  will  be  found  to 
be  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  methods  described  above ; and 
though  many  other  schemes  of  design  are  possible  none  of  them  will 
be  met  with  at  all  frequently. 

Most  of  the  devices  seen  in  carpet  patterns  require  no  explanation, 
as  they  are  either  simple  geometrical  forms  or  else  based  upon  ordinary 
natural  objects ; but  a few  of  them,  either  from  the  obscurity  of  their 
origin  or  on  account  of  their  known  symbolical  meaning,  deserve  some 
mention.  First  among  these  may  be  placed  the  cloud-band,  which  was 
derived  from  China,  and  was  very  largely  used  in  the  Persian  carpets 
of  the  sixteenth  century  and  onwards  (see  Plates  29,  205),  This  motive 
was  repeated  again  and  again,  until  it  passed  out  of  easy  recognition, 
but  probably  still  leaves  its  trace  on  many  traditional  patterns.  It  is 
possible  that  the  widely  used  S-form  is  derived  from  it.  The  palmette 
(see  Plates  18,  204)  is  very  obviously  a floral  form.  It  may  be  derived 
from  the  palm,  though  its  exact  origin  is  uncertain.  The  name,  however, 
is  a useful  one,  as  the  motive  is  of  such  very  widespread  occurrence. 

Another  motive  of  great  importance  has  no  very  satisfactory  name, 
but  is  perhaps  most  commonly  called  the  cone,  or  cone-device.  The 
most  plausible  hypothesis  is  that  it  is  derived  from  the  inflorescence  of 
the  date-palm  and  symbolizes  the  principle  of  new  birth.  It  is  found 
in  Persian  and  Indian  art  from  very  early  times,  but  does  not  appear 
in  carpets  which  can  safely  be  ascribed  to  an  earlier  period  than  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  Kashmir,  where  it  is  nearly  always  included 
in  the  far-famed  shawls,  it  is  called  ‘‘  Buta,'"  In  the  West  it  has  been 
variously  known  as  the  pear,  river-loop,  or  crown  jewel.  This  device 
is  drawn  in  many  ways.  In  its  simplest  form  it  is  merely  a comma- 
shaped  blot,  and  from  this  it  passes  by  many  gradations  through  the 
plain  angular  form  seen  in  Shirvan  rugs  (Plate  195  (12)),  and  the  simple 
assemblage  of  florets  of  Sehnas  and  Sarabands  (Plate  156),  to  the  highly 
elaborated  floral  masses  of  Bakus  (Plate  132B)  and  Shirazis,  Two 
peculiar  forms  are  the  archaistic  outlined  one  with  a long  bent  neck, 
seen  in  some  Karabaghs  (Plate  142),  and  the  compound  ones  of  Khorassans 
(Plate  202  (13)), 

Another  device  seen  in  Causcasian  rugs  would  be  quite  impossible 
to  interpret  if  it  could  not  be  traced  from  the  debased  Kufic 
inscriptions  of  some  sixteenth-century  Turkish  rugs  (Plates  136, 199  (16)  ), 
This  in  the  most  primitive  form  still  remaining  has  been  translated  as 
signifying  ''  Good  Health,'' 

131 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


The  lamp  which  is  represented  in  many  prayer-rugs  confirms  the 
theory  that  their  design  is  derived  from  the  gateway  of,  or  arch  in,  a 
mosque,  where  a lamp  would  be  a common  object. 

Another  device  often  seen  on  prayer-rugs  is  the  comb,  which  is 
a symbol  of  cleanliness — so  important  a virtue  to  the  Moslem.  Conven- 
tional hand-prints  are  seen  in  the  spandrels — where  the  hands  would 
naturally  be  placed — of  the  Beluchistan  prayer-rug  illustrated  on  Plate 
192, 

A symbol  seen  in  some  of  the  fine  sixteenth-century  Turkish  carpets 
woven  with  the  Sehna  knot,  consisting  of  three  balls  and  two  wavy  lines, 
is  discussed  on  page  51, 

Much  is  often  said  about  the  symbolism  in  Oriental  rugs,  and  it  is 
quite  certain  that  many  of  the  devices  have  indeed  a symbolic  meaning ; 
but  it  should  not  be  supposed  that  whenever  these  devices  are  used, 
their  symbolic  aspect  was  at  all  prominent  in  the  mind  of  the  weaver. 
The  significance  attached  to  them  in  the  first  instance  became  gradually 
obscured  with  repetition  until  at  last  they  are  merely  convenient  ornamental 
motives.  It  has  already  been  explained  that  fresh  motives  are  rarely 
devised  for  rugs,  but  that  existing  ones  are  usually  copied ; so  that  the 
occurrence  of  symbolic  devices  in  Oriental  carpets  has  no  more  significance 
than  that  of  roses,  lions  or  fleurs-de-lys  usually  has  in  Western  art. 

Though  many  of  the  devices  found  in  carpets  have  a wide  range 
throughout  the  East,  yet  there  are  some  that,  either  in  their  essence  or  in 
their  particular  rendering,  are  restricted  to  certain  of  the  great  geographical 
divisions. 

In  Plates  194  to  202  will  be  seen  devices  that  are  peculiar,  or 
almost  peculiar,  to  either  the  Turkish,  Caucasian,  Central  Asiatic  or 
Persian  groups  of  carpets  ; and  the  comparison  of  the  details  of  a specimen 
under  examination  with  the  devices  contained  in  these  plates  will  mostly 
allow  the  first  step  to  be  taken  towards  its  correct  classification. 

Plates  203  to  205  contain  motives  found  in  early  Persian  carpets. 
On  Plate  205,  however,  the  **  Badge  of  Tamerlane  **  in  the  upper  right- 
hand  corner  and  the  somewhat  similar  device  in  the  bottom  row,  are 
peculiar  to  the  fine  sixteenth-century  Turkish  carpets  with  the  Sehna 
knot.  The  third  device  with  black  roundels — at  the  middle  of  the 
plate — is  found  in  a Persian  carpet  and  may  be  connected  with  the  other 
two,  but  possibly  the  resemblance  is  merely  accidental. 


132 


Chapter  III 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 
(a)  Purchase 

The  properties  of  good  and  genuine  carpets  have  been  explained 
in  some  detail  in  the  foregoing  chapters^  but  it  may  still  be  useful  to 
summarize  the  considerations  to  be  borne  in  mind  when  purchasing 
them.  Each  of  the  many  factors  which,  taken  all  together,  make  up  a 
carpet  should  receive  due  and  methodical  attention.  These  factors 
may  be  stated  to  be  : Design  and  colouring ; manner  of  weaving ; 

quality  of  materials ; nature  of  dye  stuffs ; condition ; genuineness. 
Though  all  these  factors  are  important,  they  affect  to  different  degrees 
a carpet  according  as  it  is  new,  obviously  second-hand,  or  professedly 
antique.  For  example,  if  a carpet  is  new  the  question  of  its  genuineness 
or  condition  hardly  arises,  but  the  nature  of  its  dyestuffs  is  the  most 
important  question ; if  the  carpet  is  more  than  fifty  years  old  there  need 
be  no  anxiety  about  the  dyes  employed,  but  its  condition  must  be  very 
carefully  scrutinized  ; and,  lastly,  if  it  is  claimed  to  be  antique,  then  its 
genuineness  is  the  most  important  consideration. 

When  a carpet  is  being  examined  it  should  first,  in  order  to  judge 
of  its  general  effect,  be  placed  flat  on  the  ground  and  looked  at  in  turn 
from  all  points  of  view.  It  is  a favourite  trick  of  dealers  to  throw  a carpet 
which  they  wish  to  sell  over  tables  or  chairs  so  that  it  lies  in  beautiful 
folds,  for  not  only  does  this  show  off  the  play  of  the  colours  to  the  best 
advantage,  but  it  also  makes  it  very  easy  to  overlook  faults  in  the  weaving 
or  other  blemishes  which  are  detected  at  once  when  the  carpet  is  laid  flat. 
Another  plan  is  to  cause  an  assistant  to  hold  up  one  end  and  move  it 
gently  about ; and  still  another — perhaps  more  legitimate — is  to  place 
it  with  a strong  electric  light  falling  on  it  at  exactly  the  most  advantageous 
angle.  It  may  be  remarked  here  in  passing  that  a carpet  does  not  look 
its  best  on  a wall,  and  especially  high  up  ; a fact  much  to  be  regretted 
in  connexion  with  museums,  where  it  is  generally  impossible  to  exhibit 
them  in  any  other  way. 

The  merits  of  a carpet  in  respect  of  design  and  colouring  cannot 
be  usefully  discussed  here.  The  purchaser  will  naturally  buy  what 

133 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


pleases  him^  and  whether  his  choice  is  a good  one  depends  upon  the 
soundness  of  his  artistic  judgment*  Such  help  on  this  point  as  this  book 
can  give  will  be  derived  from  a general  perusal  with  perhaps  special 
attention  to  the  chapter  on  design. 

Another  aspect  of  a carpet’s  general  effect  calls^  however,  for  notice ; 
that  is  its  accuracy  in  respect  of  shape  and  flatness.  Irregularities  of 
shape  or  a disposition  to  lie  unevenly  on  the  floor  are  flaws  indeed  in  a 
carpet,  and  to  some  extent  have  an  influence  on  its  value  ; but  the  matter 
must  be  considered  a little  further.  Anyone  who  is  buying  a big  new 
Smyrna,  Feraghan  or  Tabriz  rug,  will  quite  justly  demand  that  it  should 
lie  perfectly  smoothly,  because  such  products  are  made  in  competition 
with  European  wares.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  not  be  fair  to  judge 
the  unpretentious  work  of  nomadic  tribes  by  the  same  standard.  In 
fact  a perfectly  rectangular  and  evenly  lying  nomad  carpet  is  a very 
exceptional  rarity.  Anyone  who  makes  a great  demand  in  this  direction 
merely  betrays  his  ignorance  about  the  origin  and  methods  of  production 
of  such  pieces. 

The  details  of  the  weaving  as  described  in  Part  II,  Chapter  I,  should 
be  examined  as  thoroughly  as  time  will  permit ; for  it  can  hardly  fail 
to  help  towards  forming  a sound  judgment  on  the  rug  if  such  points  as 
the  material  of  warp,  weft,  and  pile,  the  kind  of  knot  used,  the  number 
and  nature  of  the  shoots  of  weft,  and  the  finish  of  sides  and  ends  are  all 
carefully  noted.  One  other  point  is  of  more  importance  than  all  these, 
and  should  be  carefully  observed,  because  it  determines  to  a great  extent 
the  market  value  of  the  rug.  That  is  the  fineness  of  the  knotting.  It 
is  by  no  means  necessary  to  ascertain  this  very  accurately : a measure 
can  be  held  against  the  back  of  the  rug  parallel  first  to  the  warp  and  then 
to  the  weft,  and  the  number  of  knots  to  one  inch  counted  for  each  direction. 
These  numbers  multiplied  together  will  give  the  number  of  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  So  much  it  is  advisable  to  do,  because  the  eye  alone  cannot, 
without  much  practice,  form  a reliable  idea  of  the  fineness  of  the 
knotting. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  it  is  possible  to  some  extent  to  remove 
folds,  puckers,  and  general  unevenness  from  a new  carpet.  The  method 
is  to  nail  the  piece,  stretched  as  tightly  as  possible,  face  downwards  to  a 
wooden  floor,  and  then  wet  the  back  thoroughly  with  warm  water.  It 
is  then  left  until  it  is  quite  dry,  when  it  may  be  found  to  be  considerably 
improved.  In  cases  of  extreme  unevenness  the  treatment  may  be 
ineffective,  but  it  is  very  useful  when  a carpet,  originally  fairly  flat,  has 

134 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

been  stretched  unequally  by  being  tightly  folded  in  transit^  or  from  some 
similar  cause. 

A disposition  to  curl  up  at  the  edges  only  is  mostly  due  to  an 
imperfectly  executed  selvedge,  and  can  often  be  remedied  by  fresh  over- 
casting ; but  in  some  closely  woven  rugs  curling  of  the  edges  will  happen 
in  damp  weather  though  not  at  other  times. 

In  a closely  woven  carpet  it  is  not  always  easy  to  count  the  knots, 
specially  those  parallel  to  the  weft,  if  they  are  in  a patch  of  uniform  colour, 
but  it  is  always  possible  to  find  part  of  the  pattern  where  the  knots  are 
separately  visible. 

With  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  materials,  the  only  thing  that  can 
be  usefully  observed  in  a superficial  examination  is  the  feel  and  appearance 
of  the  yarn  constituting  the  pile. 

And  now  comes  the  very  difficult  question  of  the  soundness  of  the 
dyes.  The  first  thing  necessary  for  anyone  who  wishes  to  be  able  to 
form  an  opinion  at  all  useful  on  this  point  is  to  study  in  soundly  dyed 
carpets  the  principal  colours,  especially  red,  blue  and  crimson,  but  as 
many  more  as  can  be  visually  remembered. 

If  in  a new  or  not  very  old  carpet  some  of  the  colours  appear  to 
resemble  those  closely  in  tint  and  quality,  they  are  probably  dyed  with 
the  same  materials  and  should  be  equally  sound  ; but  if  there  are  brilliant 
hues  of  a different  character  they  should  be  regarded  as  doubtful.  Among 
the  most  suspicious  colours  are  a bright  orange-yellow,  a glaring  vermilion- 
red,  and  any  very  vivid  purples  or  greens. 

Each  colour  in  the  carpet  should  now  be  examined  separately,  in 
order  to  see  whether  there  are  signs  of  fading.  The  back  should  be 
compared  with  the  front ; also,  after  folding  the  carpet  sharply,  the 
pile  near  the  knots,  where  it  is  protected  from  strong  light,  should  be 
compared  with  the  surface.  Even  in  a new  carpet  this  treatment  may 
show  that  fading  has  already  begun ; while  in  a rather  older  one  it  may 
be  found  that  parts  of  the  pile,  almost  colourless,  or  of  indefinite  tint 
on  the  surface,  are  of  a brilliant  hue  nearer  to  the  knots.  Such  signs 
indicate  that  the  colours  concerned  are  not  permanent,  though  there  is 
a possibility  that  the  superficial  change  of  tint  may  be  due  to  chemical 
washing. 

The  next  test  is  to  moisten  a white  cloth  (the  moisture  of  the  mouth 
being  slightly  alkaline  is  very  convenient  for  the  purpose)  and  rub  it 
vigorously  on  each  colour  in  turn.  Some  will  produce  no  effect ; some 
will  tint  the  cloth  slightly  ; while  it  may  be  that  others  will  stain  it  deeply. 

135 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Carpets  with  such  colours  as  the  last  should  be  generally  avoided.  In 
the  next  place  the  whites  should  be  inspected  to  see  whether  they  have 
become  contaminated  with  a stain  from  the  adjoining  colours.  If  they 
are^  it  may  be  due  to  the  use  of  soluble  dyes,  or  perhaps  because  the 
carpet,  though  soundly  dyed,  has  been  exposed  to  persistent  damp. 
When  the  dyes  have  been  shown  not  to  be  very  soluble  such  a 
discoloration  of  the  whites,  if  not  unsightly,  may  be  disregarded  unless 
the  threads  themselves  have  deteriorated. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  if  the  purchaser  rejects  every  carpet 
that  has  any  suspicious  dye  in  it  he  will  have  very  few  new  carpets  to 
choose  from.  It  is  so  very  usual  for  a carpet  in  the  main  quite  good  to 
have  minute  quantities  of  fugitive  dyes — used  probably  on  account  of 
the  extreme  brilliancy  not  easily  obtained  with  sound  ones — that  the 
purchaser  may  still  wisely  consider  whether  after  all  the  carpet  may  not 
be  a satisfactory  acquisition.  If  he  can  picture  to  himself  the  carpet 
with  the  doubtful  colours  changed  to  a nondescript  neutral  tint,  and 
decides  that  such  a change  would  entail  no  real  deterioration  in  the 
appearance  of  the  carpet,  then  he  need  not  fear  to  risk  its  purchase.  After 
all,  bad  fading  of  unimportant  colours  has  occurred  in  many  real  old 
carpets  of  the  highest  beauty,  and  if  the  effect  of  a modern  carpet  is  due, 
as  it  often  is,  to  large  masses  of  good  blue  and  red,  very  little  harm  may 
be  done  to  the  balance  and  tonality  of  the  design  by  the  weakening  or 
disappearance  of  the  minor  colours.  If,  however,  the  main  colours 
of  a carpet  are  believed  to  be  unsound,  then  it  should  be  absolutely 
rejected  without  hesitation. 

To  judge  the  dyes  of  an  old  carpet  is  easy.  They  cannot  be  synthetic 
colours,  and  if  they  were  originally  fugitive  they  must  already  have  faded 
so  much  that  no  further  considerable  change  is  likely.  In  short,  the 
dyes  can  be  judged  on  their  present  appearance. 

The  condition  of  a carpet  determines  in  a high  measure  its  value 
and  utility  and  mmst  be  studied  from  every  point  of  view  by  the  purchaser. 
Luckily  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  form  an  accurate  opinion  on  the  point 
when  once  it  is  known  what  alterations,  due  to  time,  wear  and  accident, 
are  to  be  looked  for.  A new  and  unused  carpet  is  naturally  in  good 
condition  as  a rule,  but  there  is  a possibility  that  it  has  been  kept  in  the 
damp  or  exposed  to  sea-water  in  the  course  of  transit,  in  which  cases 
the  foundation  threads  may  have  deteriorated  badly  without  there  being 
visible  signs  of  the  trouble,  although  it  is  more  likely  that  there  are  stained 
parts  and  signs  of  the  colours  having  run  together.  The  strength  of 

136 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


the  warp-  and  weft-threads  should  be  tested  by  absolute  force.  The 
carpet  should  be  folded  face  inwards  parallel  to  the  warp  and  an  attempt 
should  be  made  as  it  were  to  pull  the  weft-threads  asunder.  There  is 
no  danger  in  applying  this  method  to  a sound  carpet ; but  if  the  weft- 
threads  actually  break  or  loosen,  or  if  a sound  of  cracking  is  heard,  the 
foundation  may  be  known  to  be  rotten  in  that  place.  The  warp-threads 
can  be  tested  in  a similar  way,  but  the  carpet  must  be  very  weak  indeed 
for  them  actually  to  break.  If  the  carpet  is  weak — excepting  perhaps 
in  a mere  isolated  spot — it  should  be  rejected,  for  a new  carpet  with  a 
rotten  foundation  is  valueless. 

The  more  obvious  signs  of  wear,  such  as  occur  in  a second-hand 
carpet,  should  now  be  taken  into  account.  The  ends  and  sides  of  a carpet, 
on  account  of  their  exposed  positions,  are  the  parts  which  first  begin  to 
wear  away,  and  it  should  be  noticed  whether  they  are  at  all  frayed, 
loosened  or  weak.  Then  the  pile  should  be  examined.  If  the  carpet 
has  seen  service  the  pile  must  have  worn  down  to  some  extent,  at  least 
in  places,  for  such  wear  is  seldom  uniform.  If  the  examination  shows 
that  the  pile  is  worn  away  down  to  the  knots,  even  in  parts,  it  is  almost 
certain  that  the  carpet  will  not  stand  much  more  wear,  and  it  will  probably 
prove  a bad  investment.  It  may  be  obvious,  but  it  is  important  to  insist 
upon  the  fact  that  a much-worn  carpet,  however  good  it  may  have  been 
and  however  beautiful  it  is  in  appearance,  should  not  be  bought  by  anyone 
who  intends  it  for  use  on  the  floor. 

More  obvious  blemishes,  which  are  often  very  unsightly,  such  as 
holes,  cuts,  or  localized  stains,  may  be  due  to  accidental  causes  and  often 
are  of  little  account,  provided  suitable  allowance  is  made  in  the  price. 
A skilful  carpet-repairer  can  do  wonders  in  such  cases.  Cuts  can  be 
sewn  together  by  a process  akin  to  weaving ; holes  can  be  re-knotted 
on  freshly-inserted  warps ; and  the  knots  of  badly  stained  parts  can 
be  picked  out  and  replaced  by  new  ones.  Such  work  is  of  course  often 
done  before  the  carpet  is  offered  for  sale,  but  by  no  means  invariably. 

It  will  aid  the  foregoing  inspection  if  the  carpet  is  held  up  with  its 
face  to  a strong  light  and  then  looked  at  from  the  back.  This  will  at 
once  make  visible  small  holes,  slits,  and  thin,  threadbare  places,  even 
if  they  were  overlooked  before.  Sometimes,  too,  repairs  will  be  visible 
by  this  means,  but  generally  they  are  best  detected  by  the  sense  of  touch. 
If  the  fingers  are  passed  over  those  parts  of  the  carpet  where  are  seen 
indefinite  and  vague  dark  lines,  patches  of  slightly  different  colour, 
or  unexpected  breaks  in  the  pattern,  an  extra  thickness  felt  may  show 

137 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


that  the  carpet  has  been  joined  together  or  repaired  with  stitching  and 
new  knots.  Such  repairs  are  not  very  detrimental  if  skilfully  done  and 
only  of  small  extent. 

Another  defect  of  condition  is  that  of  extreme  dirtiness  of  the  surface. 
A dealer  will  rarely  show  such  a carpet^  for  he  knows  what  a wonderful 
change  may  be  effected  by  cleaning ; but  it  sometimes  happens  that  a 
piece  is  met  with  casually^  or  perhaps  at  an  auction  sale,  whose  true 
quality  is  entirely  obscured  by  the  dirty  condition.  If  in  such  a case 
any  doubt  is  felt  as  to  the  improvement  that  cleaning  will  effect,  a damp 
cloth  rubbed  on  a small  part  will  soon  settle  the  point. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  whole  of  the  examination  outlined  above  cannot 
be  carried  out  in  some  cases,  such  for  instance  as  when  carpets  are  put 
up  for  sale  by  auction,  and  may  not  be  convenient  even  Vv^hen  they  are 
seen  in  a dealer's  shop.  It  is  on  this  account  that  inexperienced  buyers 
should  be  very  cautious  in  making  purchases  at  auctions,  and  should 
if  possible  in  other  cases  have  the  carpet  for  a few  days  on  approval  before 
coming  to  a decision.  Most  dealers  will  agree  readily  to  this,  and  indeed 
it  rather  tells  against  them  if  they  are  unwilling  to  do  so.  Even 
experienced  buyers  will  be  well  advised  to  see  a carpet  at  home  before 
buying,  because  it  may  not  suit  its  intended  surroundings  as  well  as  was 
anticipated  when  it  was  seen  in  the  shop,  and  also  it  is  by  no  means 
uncommon  for  a carpet  which  appeals  very  strongly  at  first  to  the  eye 
to  seem  more  ordinary  after  a few  days'  familiarity. 

By  the  genuineness  of  carpets  is  meant  the  correspondence  between 
what  they  really  are  and  what  they  appear  to  be,  or  are  claimed  to  be 
by  the  man  who  wishes  to  sell  them.  Alas,  a very  great  discrepancy 
is  often  to  be  found  here.  Many  dealers  describe  their  goods  as  being 
very  old,  especially  if  they  suppose  the  purchaser  sets  store  by  age.  In 
the  East  it  is  a general  practice  to  add  about  a century  to  the  age  of  a 
carpet,  and  this  may  be  considered  a practice  of  moderation  in  comparison 
with  what  is  often  said.  A dealer  who  describes  a carpet  of  fifty  years 
old  as  a genuine  antique  " must  be  regarded  as  being  not  very  untruthful. 

A carpet  may  be  justly  called  antique  if  it  is  over  a century  old,  and 
all  such  pieces,  or  even  fragments,  have  a certain  value  unless  the  condition 
is  exceptionally  bad.  As  the  age  increases  the  value  increases  enormously, 
so  that  complete  carpets  of  two  or  three  centuries  old  in  good  condition 
command  immense  sums.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  sellers  try 
to  persuade  customers  that  their  carpets  are  of  this  class,  and  in  some  cases 
they  no  doubt  believe  the  wares  to  be  as  they  describe  them.  When, 

138 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


to  quote  an  actual  case,  a modern  Multan  rug  of  indifferent  quality  and 
no  artistic  interest  is  offered  as  a seventh-century  rug  for  the  sum  of 
£50,000,  it  is  only  fair  to  suppose  that  the  owner  is  under  a genuine 
misapprehension  as  to  its  real  nature  ! 

Mere  errors  of  description  are  not  perhaps  very  dangerous,  because 
it  is  well  known  that  the  word  of  a vendor  cannot  always  be  relied  upon ; 
and  there  are  not  many  buyers  who  will  give  large  prices  for  goods  of 
whose  value  and  nature  they  know  little*  A more  insidious,  if  not  quite 
such  a common  evil,  is  for  carpets  to  be  treated  in  various  ways  with  the 
express  intention  of  deceiving  by  making  them  appear  to  be  different 
from  what  they  really  are.  It  may  be  useful  to  describe  shortly  a few 
of  the  operations  of  this  sort  which  are  commonly  practised,  and  to  give 
a few  hints  by  which  the  deception  may  be  exposed. 

It  is  well  in  the  first  place  to  ask  oneself  whenever  a carpet  is  seen 
for  the  first  time  : **  Is  this  piece  genuine  i **  Of  course,  in  the  majority 
of  cases  an  affirmative  answer  can  be  given  immediately ; but  the  mere 
asking  of  the  question,  and  still  more  an  attempt  to  find  evidence  of 
deceit,  will  obviate  the  dangerous  possibility  of  the  purchaser  being  taken 
off  his  guard. 

The  commonest  trick  is  that  of  chemical  washing,  which  has  been 
mentioned  already.  This  is  so  widely  done  and  is  so  well  known  that 
it  cannot  invariably  be  regarded  as  a deliberate  deception.  It  has  the 
effect  of  giving  an  appearance  of  age,  but  apart  from  that  it  is  used  to 
modify  the  crude  and  vivid  colouring  which  is  possessed  by  many  modern 
carpets  when  new  ; and  it  certainly  does  result  in  an  immediate, 
if  transitory  and  undesirable,  improvement  in  the  rug's  appearance. 
It  is  practised  to  varying  extents,  from  a sponging  over  with  a mild  acid, 
not  very  injurious,  to  a severe  treatment  with  strong  chemicals  which 
alters  the  whole  colouring  and  tonality  of  the  design,  and  seriously  impairs 
the  wearing  qualities  of  the  wool.  It  is  carried  out  in  the  East,  probably 
often  by  the  weavers  of  the  carpets ; and  to  a still  greater  extent  after 
they  have  reached  the  Western  markets.  In  London  there  are  firms  who 
specialize  in  this  business,  and  when  it  is  said  that  the  present  cost  of  the 
process  is  about  gd.  a square  foot,  it  will  be  understood  that  the  dealers 
are  pretty  sure  that  it  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of  their  wares. 

It  is  not  easy  to  be  certain  whether  a rug  has  been  chemically  washed. 
If,  however,  the  whites  are  pure  in  colour  and  rather  glaring  it  is  certain 
that  it  has  not  been  washed.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rug  is  in  good 
condition  and  shows  no  signs  of  wear,  and  yet  the  whites  are  toned  with 

139 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


a yellowish-grey,  and  all  the  colours  are  mellow  and  a little  indefinite, 
then  it  is  very  probable  that  washing  has  been  practised. 

Another  method  of  ageing  carpets  is  more  vicious  if  not  more 
harmful.  This  is  to  expose  a new  carpet  to  bright  sunlight,  in  a street 
where  all  the  traffic  will  pass  over  it  ; a service  which  the  owner's 
neighbours  will  cordially  assist  in.  After  the  rug  is  cleaned,  it  will  have 
signs  of  wear  which  are  not  dissimilar  to  those  obtained  in  genuine  service. 
Thus  a rug  may  look  many  years  old  when  it  is  in  reality  quite  new. 
There  is  perhaps  no  particular  harm  in  this,  though  it  is  certainly  a pity 
to  reduce  the  life  of  a rug  by  artificial  means.  The  chief  protection  to 
the  buyer  lies  in  the  fact  that  this  treatment  is  rarely  accorded  to  really 
good  rugs,  but  only  to  those  whose  merits  are  insufficient  without  the 
added  glamour  of  age,  to  attract  a purchaser.  Anyone  who  is  able  to 
evaluate  the  quality  of  the  rug  apart  from  the  signs  of  wear,  is  not  likely 
to  make  a mistake  here. 

A fairly  certain  sign  of  genuine  age  is  the  unequal  wearing  of  the 
different  colours.  It  has  already  been  explained  that  black-dyed  wools 
generally  wear  away  much  faster  than  others,  but  nearly  every  dye  has 
some  effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  fibre  as  well  as  upon  its  colour.  Some 
dyes  actually  seem  to  preserve  the  wool,  but  whether  that  is  true  or  not 
it  will  generally  be  found  that  the  pile  of  some  colours  is  shorter,  less 
bulky,  or  otherwise  different  from  the  rest.  When  it  is  seen  that  each 
separate  colour  is  evenly  worn  throughout  and  that  there  are  differences 
between  the  various  colours,  then  it  may  be  assumed  with  safety  that  the 
carpet  is  at  least  several,  and  probably  as  much  as  forty  or  fifty,  years  old. 

A process  has  recently  been  devised  for  improving  the  appearance 
of  the  pile,  by  treating  the  carpet  with  glycerine  and  then  passing  it 
between  hot  rollers.  A lustre  is  certainly  given  by  this  means,  but  it 
is  different  from  the  natural  lustre  of  good  wool,  and  it  is  almost  certain 
that  the  effect  cannot  be  permanent,  even  if  it  does  not  seriously  injure 
the  wool. 

Other  practices,  perhaps  more  legitimate,  have  for  their  object  the 
improvement  of  pieces  whose  condition  is  not  good.  One  common 
artifice  is  to  tint  on  the  surface  those  parts  of  the  pattern  which  are  so 
threadbare  as  to  show  nothing  but  the  foundation  threads.  This  is 
permissible  to  a limited  extent,  in  the  case  of  old  pieces  kept  for  inspection 
only,  as  for  example  in  Museums  or  other  collections,  when  the  judicious 
application  of  a little  colour  may  prevent  a few  staring  patches  from 
entirely  spoiling  the  intended  effect  of  the  carpet.  For  practical  service 

140 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


such  a method  is  of  course  useless,  as  the  colour  would  not  last.  In 
such  a case  the  correct  remedy  is  re-knotting  the  injured  parts  ; and, 
if  this  is  not  practicable,  then  the  carpet  is  too  far  gone  to  be  fit  for  use. 

Old  carpets  which  are  badly  worn,  or  much  damaged  in  places, 
while  the  rest  is  fairly  good,  are  often  cut  up  and  joined  together  again 
so  as  to  make  up  a smaller  piece  of  good  appearance.  Care  is  taken 
that  the  joins  do  not  run  across  plain  parts  of  the  rug  ; but  they  are  carried 
along  lines  such  as  the  edge  of  a border  or,  when  necessary,  are  made  to 
follow  more  involved  courses  round  the  contour  of  the  pattern.  Carpets 
which  have  been  mended  cleverly  may  perfectly  well  be  beautiful  and 
valuable  specimens  in  a collection,  but  if  the  purchaser  does  not  detect 
the  repairs,  then  he  may  unjustly  have  to  pay  the  price  of  a perfectly 
preserved  carpet,  because  only  the  best  firms  base  their  prices  upon 
the  real  condition,  as  ascertained  by  experts. 

A still  more  refined  art  is  the  deliberate  manufacture  of  bogus  antique 
carpets.  A sketch  of  the  process  adopted  by  a certain  factory  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  misapplied  skill  devoted  to  this  fraud.  A carpet  with  a 
good  old  design  is  made  of  the  finest  materials  by  the  best  available  weavers. 
It  is  then  taken  to  the  sea  and  immersed  long  enough  to  soften  and  bleach 
the  colours  to  the  desired  extent.  Next  it  is  rubbed  down  back  and 
front  with  a pumice-stone ; not  evenly,  but  more  in  those  parts  where 
wear  would  be  expected.  After  this  it  is,  while  damp,  singed  with  a 
spirit-flame,  so  that  the  fluffiness  and  softness  of  the  new  wool  shall  be 
removed.  Lastly,  holes  are  burned  in  it  with  red-hot  coals,  and  these 
holes  are  repaired  so  well  as  to  be  imperceptible  without  the  closest 
examination. 

Such  productions  will  not  often  be  dangerous  to  the  ordinary  buyer, 
because  the  cost  of  manufacture  is  so  great  that  they  can  only  be  offered 
for  very  high  sums.  Experienced  dealers  have,  however,  bought  such 
things  under  the  impression  that  they  were  antiques  of  great  rarity,  which 
shows  it  is  not  easy  to  detect  the  imposture.  A microscope,  however, 
will  show  the  burnt  and  slightly  swollen  ends  of  the  woollen  fibres. 

Luckily,  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  imitate  the  pattern,  colour, 
and  materials  of  a real  old  carpet  with  perfect  accuracy ; so  that  there 
is  nearly  always  something  incongruous  in  the  imitation  to  the  trained 
eye.  Very  often  the  claim  that  a carpet  is  of  a certain  date,  can  be  at 
once  disproved  by  the  fact  that  the  design  is  one  quite  unknown  until 
a much  later  period. 

A close  scrutiny  of  all  the  details  which  have  been  mentioned  should 

141 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


give  considerable  help  in  arriving  at  a correct  appraisement  of  any  carpet 
whose  purchase  is  contemplated ; but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  it 
will  take  the  place  of  the  experience  which  is  derived  from  a long 
acquaintance  and  painstaking  study  of  carpets.  It  is  often  hard^  even 
when  the  facts  are  observed^  to  give  them  their  due  weight — neither 
more  nor  less — so  that  experts  and  dealers  of  long  standing  are  sometimes 
mistaken  in  their  conclusions.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  such  methods 
of  investigation  as  have  been  suggested  will  lead  by  degrees  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  experience  so  much  to  be  desired. 

(6)  Prices 

The  price  of  an  Eastern  rug  depends  upon  so  many  indefinite  factors 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  give  much  assistance  on  the  point  to  a would-be 
purchaser,  and  nothing  that  is  written  can  take  the  place  of  a practical 
acquaintance  with  the  market.  Although  it  is  the  hardest  question 
upon  which  to  give  information,  it  is  perhaps  that  upon  which  the  student 
is  most  anxious  to  receive  it,  so  that  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  deal 
with  it  as  well  as  may  be. 

Although  carpets  are  mostly  sold  by  the  piece,  it  somewhat  simplifies 
the  question  to  consider  the  price  per  square  foot,  and,  indeed,  it  is  from 
this  point  of  view  that  the  dealer  fixes  his  prices.  Leaving  aside  the 
question  of  mere  area,  it  is  obvious  that  a piece  which  entails  much  work 
must  be  sold  for  a higher  price  than  one  v/hich  is  more  quickly  made, 
and  accordingly  a finely-knotted  rug  is  more  costly  than  a coarse  one. 
In  comparison  with  the  labour  involved,  the  materials  used  do  not  account 
for  a high  proportion  of  the  price,  but  a very  heavy  rug  is  usually  more 
costly  than  the  coarseness  of  its  texture  would  imply.  Other  factors 
which  increase  the  price  out  of  proportion  to  the  labour  involved  are 
beauty  of  design  and  colouring,  rarity  and  age ; while,  on  the  other  hand, 
unsoundness  of  workmanship  and — to  an  even  greater  extent — bad 
condition  detract  from  the  value. 

In  order  to  get  a basis  upon  which  to  proceed  it  will  be  well  to  fix 
upon  a kind  of  standard  of  quality  and  condition,  and  this  standard  should 
be  one  which  is  frequently  met  with.  Let  it  be  assumed  then  that  the 
standard  rug  is  well-woven,  made  of  good  materials  and  dyed  with  sound 
colours,  and  that  it  is  either  new  or  so  little  worn  as  not  to  have  appreciably 
lost  any  of  its  wearing  qualities,  and  that  in  point  of  design  and  beauty 
of  colouring  it  is  neither  below  nor  above  the  average.  When  such  rugs 
are  examined  it  will  be  found  that,  provided  they  are  of  the  same  fineness, 

142 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


it  matters  little  from  what  country  they  come  or  of  what  type  they  are, 
but  that  the  price  is  pretty  constant  for  them  all ; and  further  it  will 
be  found  that  if  two  rugs  differ  in  texture  then  their  prices  are 
approximately  proportional  to  the  number  of  knots  in  a square  inch, 
though  there  is  a tendency,  on  account  of  the  extra  material  required, 
for  the  coarse  rugs,  as  already  stated,  to  be  rather  more  expensive  than 
this  proportion  would  indicate.  Some  types  of  rugs,  even  when 
everything  otherwise  is  equal,  are  rather  more  and  some  are  rather  less 
expensive  than  the  average,  but  generally  the  divergence  is  not 
considerable. 

The  following  table  gives  the  present  average  retail  price  (July, 
1922)  per  square  foot  in  London  of  different  types  of  rugs  of  the  standard 
quality  as  defined  above. 


Knots  per 

Price  per 

Price  for  each 

Type. 

square  inch. 

square  foot. 

50  knots  per 
square  inch. 

Smyrna  or  Turkey  . 

16 

4/5 

13/6 

Smyrna  or  Turkey  (“  Standard  ”)  20 

5/- 

12/6 

Sparta 

. 40 

10/- 

12/6 

Chinese  (modern) 

• 45 

10/- 

II/I 

Feraghan . 

. 50 

10/- 

10/- 

Shiraz 

. 50 

7/6 

7/6 

Muskabad 

. 50 

7/9 

7/9 

Beluchistan 

• 55 

7/9 

7/- 

Meshed  . 

. 70 

10/- 

7/2 

Caucasian 

. 70 

10/- 

7/2 

Kurdistan 

. 80 

14/5 

9/- 

Kirman  . 

. 80 

12/3 

7/8 

Tabriz 

. 80 

12/3 

7/8 

Yomud 

. 150 

14/5 

4/10 

Bokhara  . 

. 200 

17/9 

4/5 

Sehna 

. 240 

33/4 

6/8 

Kashan  . 

. 250 

33/4 

6/8 

Kashan  (silk)  . 

. 250 

44/9 

9/- 

Warps  to 

I inch. 

Persian  Kilims 

10 

3/4 

— 

Other  Kilims  . 

10 

2/9 

— 

Soumak  . 

8 

7/6 

— 

The  last  column. 

which  gives  the 

price  per  square 

foot  for  each 

50  knots  per  square  inch,  shows  the  relative  value  of  the  various  types 
of  rugs  when  the  fineness  of  knotting  is  taken  into  account.  The  first 

143 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


four  types  are  heavily-made  rugs  in  which  the  sheer  weight  of  material 
increases  the  proportionate  cost.  The  relative  value  of  the  rest^  it  will 
be  seen^  does  not  vary  very  greatly.  This  column  shows  that  the  most 
expensive  rugs  in  proportion  to  their  fineness  are  Feraghans,  Kurdistans^ 
and  Kashans  with  a silk  pile  ; while  the  cheapest  are  Central  Asiatic  rugs^ 
such  as  Bokharas  and  Yomuds.  Other  rugs  not  mentioned  in  the  table 
range  about  the  average  value^  which  may  be  said  to  be  about  75.  6d. 
per  square  foot  for  each  50  knots  to  the  square  inch. 

Exceptionally  pleasing  design  in  colouring,  as  already  said,  will 
lead  to  an  increased  price,  though  it  is  quite  impossible  to  suggest  any 
system  upon  which  the  increase  can  be  evaluated.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  for  standard  rugs  the  prices  should  rarely  be  twice  as  great 
as  those  given.  On  the  other  hand,  an  inferior  appearance  may  cause 
a reduction  in  price,  but  it  will  not  on  that  account  fall  much  below  the 
quoted  figures.  Bad  condition  may  reduce  the  price  indefinitely,  and 
perhaps  a rough  guide  to  the  decrease  may  be  afforded  by  an  estimate 
of  how  much  of  the  rug's  useful  life  has  been  destroyed  by  v/ear  or  misuse. 

Generally  speaking,  the  value  of  a rug  increases  with  its  age,  as  soon 
as  the  latter  becomes  considerable.  Here  again  accurate  figures  cannot 
be  given,  but  quite  roughly  it  may  be  suggested  that,  if  the  condition 
is  reasonably  good  for  the  age,  then  each  century  that  has  passed  about 
doubles  the  value. 

In  this  connexion  it  may  be  of  some  interest,  even  if  of  little  practical 
use,  to  work  out  on  these  lines  the  approximate  value  of  the  Ardabil  carpet, 
which  is  probably  the  best  known  and  most  famous  rug  in  the  world. 
It  has  about  350  knots  to  the  square  inch,  and  contains  604  square  ft. 
Viewed  as  a standard  new  rug,  its  value  would  be  about  604  X 7 X 7/6, 
or  £1,585.  As  it  is  nearly  four  centuries  old,  this  value  must  be  multiplied 
by  16 ; and  as  its  condition  is  much  above  the  average  for  such  an  age, 
and  its  interest  is  quite  exceptional,  the  resulting  price  may  fairly  be 
at  least  doubled  again.  This  would  lead  to  the  sum  of  £50,720,  a figure 
not  inconsistent  with  various  estimates  which  have  been  made. 

Again,  to  take  an  antique  carpet  of  fairly  common  type,  it  will  be 
found  that  an  early  eighteenth-century  Ghiordes  prayer-rug  in  fair 
condition,  and  containing  about  30  square  ft.  and  having  70  knots  to 
the  square  inch,  will  cost  about  £60,  which  agrees  with  the  formula 
7/6X30X4X  70/50.  A Kula  rug  of  the  same  kind  will  usually  be 
rather  more  coarsely  woven  and  will  probably  be  sold  for  from  £45  to 

£50* 


144 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


It  will  not  be  supposed  from  what  has  been  said  above  that  the 
general  level  of  carpet  prices  is  free  from  market  fluctuations — and  indeed 
such  is  far  from  being  the  case — but  in  ordinary  circumstances  the  changes 
are  not  very  great  or  very  rapid.  All  the  time^  however,  there  is  a certain 
movement  going  on,  sometimes  in  one  direction  and  sometimes  in  the 
other,  though  the  general  tendency  is  for  prices  to  get  higher  year  by 
year.  Up  till  1914  they  had  been  slowly  but  steadily  mounting,  and  then 
the  war,  which  had  such  a profound  effect  upon  all  prices  and  values, 
caused  a very  rapid  increase,  and  a level  was  reached  such  as  had  never 
been  thought  of  before.  In  fact  there  are  few  commodities  not  necessary 
to  life  or  to  the  supply  of  munitions  of  war  which  increased  in  price  as 
much  as  carpets.  The  apex  was  reached  about  1918  and  1919,  but  it 
is  not  easy  to  give  a definite  figure  for  the  increase,  as  the  various  types 
of  carpets  were  very  differently  affected.  The  really  old  and  rare  carpets 
whose  prices  were  already  very  high  suffered  the  least  change,  while 
some  more  ordinary  kinds  in  special  demand  at  the  moment  went  up 
to  at  least  five  times  their  pre-war  value.  Perhaps  it  would  be  near  the 
mark  to  say  that  the  general  level,  taking  one  type  with  another,  exceeded 
by  200  per  cent,  that  existing  before  the  war.  Afterwards  prices  fell 
again  even  more  rapidly  than  they  had  risen  and  very  many  carpets  had 
to  be  sold  by  dealers  at  prices  much  lower  than  had  been  given  for  them. 
At  present  (July,  1922)  the  general  level  may  be  taken  to  be  about  20  per 
cent,  higher  than  it  was  in  1914,  so  that  it  is  probable,  taking  the  natural 
rise  into  account,  that  prices  are  not  very  different  now  from  what  they 
would  have  been  if  there  had  been  no  war. 

As  to  the  future,  it  is  dangerous  to  speak,  but  it  hardly  seems  possible 
that  the  present  level  will  not  soon  be  very  much  heightened.  The 
tempting  prices  of  the  war  caused  the  accumulated  stores  in  private 
hands  to  be  drawn  away  to  the  West ; and  the  general  disturbance  in  the 
East,  to  say  nothing  of  the  actual  destruction  of  the  weavers  and  their 
property,  must,  it  would  seem,  inevitably  reduce  fresh  production.  It 
also  seems  likely  that  labour  conditions  will  change  so  much,  as  profoundly 
to  alter  the  cost  of  manufacture,  so  that  it  is  quite  possible  that  in  a few 
years  the  prices  of  hand-made  Eastern  carpets  may  be  such  as  to  make 
the  present  ones  seem  insignificant. 

(c)  Treatment 

A few  hints  may  perhaps  be  usefully  given  as  to  how  carpets  ought 
to  be  treated. 


145 


L 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


The  first  problem  to  be  dealt  with  is  that  of  the  best  way  of  cleaning 
them  when  dirty.  A carpet^  even  when  bought  straight  from  a dealer, 
or  in  any  case  after  it  has  been  in  use  for  a number  of  years,  will  generally 
be  full  of  dust,  and  dirty  on  the  surface,  and  it  is  essential  to  have  it  cleaned 
occasionally  if  its  beauty  and  strength  are  to  be  retained. 

If  the  carpet  is  fairly  strong  in  structure  it  should  have  the  dust 
removed  by  beating  with  a broad  carpet-beater,  while  it  rests  face 
downwards  on  some  level  and  slightly  yielding  surface ; the  use  of  a 
stick,  whether  it  is  supple  or  not,  can  in  no  circumstances  be  recommended. 
A suitable  surface  for  resting  the  carpet  on  while  it  is  beaten  is  a dry 
lawn,  or  in  winter  time  on  clean  snow.  It  may  also  be  placed  on  an 
ordinary  floor  covered  with  several  layers  of  newspapers,  but  it  is  not 
advisable  to  hang  a carpet  on  a line  for  beating.  The  use  of  vacuum 
cleaners,  or  of  compressed  air,  is  very  suitable  for  new  carpets  or  older 
ones  whose  condition  is  still  good ; but  if  these  methods  are  employed 
on  old  carpets  which  are  weak  or  have  been  much  mended,  the  powerful 
suction  or  pressure  of  the  air  causes  the  loss  of  a great  deal  of  wool, 
especially  in  the  repaired  places. 

After  this  process  of  dry-cleaning,  carpets  ought  to  be  washed,  when, 
of  course,  it  is  essential  that  the  colours  are  such  as  will  not  be  spoiled 
by  wetting.  Washing,  however,  must  not  be  left  to  the  mercy  of  an 
ordinary  laundry,  because  they  would  use  very  hot  water  and  possibly 
alkalis,  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  carpet  will  return  with  dead  and 
lustreless  wool.  The  best  way  is  to  wash  it  with  warm  water  and  carpet 
or  wool  soap,  which  is  a compound  of  ordinary  good  soap  and  ox-gall. 
The  lather  can  be  applied  freely  with  a soft  brush  rubbed  the  way  the 
pile  lies.  The  soap  must  be  well  washed  away  by  repeated  soakings, 
or  treatment  with  a hose-pipe,  after  which  as  much  water  as  possible 
should  be  pressed  out  by  stroking  with  a smooth  stick  in  the  direction 
of  the  pile. 

This  process  gives  softness  and  even  an  enhanced  lustre  to  a carpet 
when  once  it  is  thoroughly  dry. 

Carpets  are  best  preserved  by  washing  every  few  years,  and  only 
beating  occasionally  and  moderately  in  the  meantime.  They  must, 
of  course,  be  swept  or  brushed  frequently.  This  should  be  done  chiefly 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  pile  lies.  Brushing  from  side  to  side  may 
be  done  gently,  but  never  should  it  be  against  the  pile.  In  respect  of 
this,  domestic  servants  are  very  obstinate,  for  they  often  allege  that  more 
dust  is  removed  by  brushing  in  the  wrong  direction.  They  are  quite 

146 


PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


right  in  the  statement,  but  the  reason  is  that  the  pile  is  raised  and  separated, 
so  that  far  more  dust  can  accumulate  in  it»  When  the  brush  is  used 
in  the  right  direction  its  bristles  gradually  coax  the  dust  to  the  surface, 
and  the  pile  is  left  in  the  condition  best  fitted  for  resisting  wear.  Mechanical 
carpet-sweepers  are  inadvisable  as  they  sweep  in  both  directions. 

If  the  owner  of  a carpet  has  a small  river  handy  he  cannot  do  better 
than  immerse  it  in  the  flowing  water  after  he  has  secured  it  tightly.  He 
may  also  spread  it  back  uppermost  on  clean  grass  or  on  a network  of 
ropes  when  heavy  rain  is  falling,  or  may  drag  it  about  with  its  face  on  a 
patch  of  clean  snow. 

It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  these  processes  are  not  easy  to  apply 
to  large  rugs,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  send  them  for  cleaning  to  a 
reliable  firm  who  understand  the  work.  One  great  difficulty  is  the  final 
drying  of  the  carpet,  which  must  be  done  out  of  doors  or  in  a very  large 
room  where  the  air  is  circulating  freely.  As  the  drying  often  takes  several 
days,  it  may  happen,  especially  in  big  towns,  that  a lot  of  fresh  dirt  may 
fall  on  the  carpet  while  it  is  exposed. 

Other  methods  of  cleaning  carpets  are  sometimes  recommended 
but  are  of  doubtful  value.  Treatment  with  wood-shavings  soaked  in 
petrol  is  expensive,  dangerous  and  not  effective.  Rubbing  them  while 
damp  with  rough  sea-salt  is  liable  to  injure  the  colours. 

The  worst  enemy  of  the  carpet  collector  is  the  common  moth. 
Carpets  which  are  walked  on  are  much  safer  from  its  attacks  than  those 
which  are  used  as  door  or  wall-hangings  or  turned  into  upholstery,  but 
the  greatest  danger  is  to  rugs  which  are  stored  away.  As  moths  have 
a liking  for  quiet,  warm  places  it  is  advisable  to  disturb  them  by  airing 
floor  carpets  and  shaking  hanging  specimens  as  often  as  possible.  Moths 
have  a preference  for  certain  colours,  especially  red,  and  for  loose  textures 
rather  than  for  tightly-knotted  ones.  For  this  reason  it  is  particularly 
desirable  that  pieces  which  have  once  been  affected  with  moth  should  be 
examined  with  especial  care, 

A very  useful  way  of  keeping  moth  away  from  carpets  is  to  place 
the  wings  of  birds,  such  as  hens,  pigeons  and  crows,  on  the  top  of  cupboards. 
Moths  have  quite  a peculiar  passion  for  feathers  and  will  lay  their  eggs 
in  them  in  preference  to  any  other  place.  By  leaving  such  temptation 
about  and  making  examination  from  time  to  time  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  destroy  these  enemies. 

If  carpets  must  be  put  away  for  a time,  it  is  well  to  pack  them  with 
naphthalene,  camphor,  or  lavender  oil,  in  tin-lined  cases,  or  strong  paper 

147 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


parcels  into  which  the  flying  moth  cannot  penetrate*  If^  however^  the 
eggs  of  the  moth  are  packed  up  in  the  carpet  they  may  hatch  out,  in  spite 
of  any  strong-smelling  substance,  and  do  much  damage*  It  is,  accordingly, 
wise  to  make  as  sure  as  possible  that  the  carpet  is  free  from  infection 
when  put  away,  and  as  there  is  never  complete  certainty  as  to  this,  there 
is  danger  unless  the  carpets  are  examined  from  time  to  time* 

A safe  plan  is  to  put  the  goods  into  cold  storage,  but  this  is  expensive, 
and  in  many  places  not  practicable*  It  is  claimed  that  petrol  poured 
over  will  destroy  the  eggs  of  the  moth  ; but  it  is  not  quite  certain  whether 
it  is  a fact*  An  ingenious  method  of  destroying  infection,  and  one  which 
has  been  tried  with  success,  is  to  place  the  carpets  in  a warm  chamber, 
saturated  with  the  vapour  of  chloroform*  The  warmth  hatches  out 
the  eggs,  but  the  grubs  are  immediately  destroyed  before  they  can  do 
any  damage* 

It  must  be  remembered  that  good  carpets  must  be  taken  care  of* 
For  instance,  heavy  pieces  of  furniture  with  sharp  edges  should  never 
be  allowed  to  stand  continuously  on  the  same  place  of  a carpet,  or  marks 
and  holes  will  result  according  to  the  strength  of  the  fabric*  If  a piece 
of  linoleum,  or,  better  still,  a sheet  of  thick  rubber  is  placed  under  the 
legs  of  tables  and  chests  there  will  be  little  danger  of  damage 

If  it  is  necessary  to  put  away,  or  pack  a carpet,  it  is  better  not  to  fold 
it  in  both  directions,  especially  if  it  is  tightly-knotted  or  weak : folds 
in  one  direction  only,  do  little  damage  unless  the  carpet  is  very  stiff  or 
very  old*  The  best  plan  is  to  roll  the  carpet*  Even  this  may  injure  a 
very  stiff  carpet,  especially  if  it  is  subjected  to  pressure  when  rolled ; 
but  the  difflculty  may  be  surmounted  by  rolling  it  round  some  cylindrical 
object  like  a strong  tube  of  cardboard  or  another  softer  carpet*  A small 
thin  carpet  may  be  protected  by  a stick  in  the  middle,  which  will  prevent 
the  whole  roll  being  bent* 

It  should  be  noted  at  times  whether  any  attention  is  needed  in  the 
way  of  repairs*  If  the  fringe  gets  ragged  it  should  be  trimmed  evenly* 
If  the  ends  or  sides  begin  to  unravel,  they  can  be  oversewn  as  a blanket 
is,  or  re-overcast,  and  perhaps  the  work  will  be  stronger  if  a piece  of 
webbing  is  sewn  on  at  the  back  along  the  edge*  Cuts  and  tears  should 
be  repaired  as  soon  as  possible,  and  holes  or  small  threadbare  places 
should  be  re-knotted*  Old  rugs  that  will  not  stand  much  wear  but  are 
still  beautiful  objects  can  be  hung  up  instead  of  being  left  on  the  floor ; 
but  it  is  often  possible  to  find  a place  in  the  house  where  they  can  be 
placed  flat  and  yet  only  occasionally  be  walked  on* 

148 


Chapter  IV 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET— THEIR  GROUPING  AND 

IDENTIFICATION 

(a)  Turkish 

Turkish  carpets  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  : (i)  those  produced 
in  factories  and  (ii)  those  produced  as  a home  industry, 

(i)  Turkish  Carpets  made  in  Factories, — The  sedentary  Turk  is  not 
a craftsman  ; so  that  practically  all  carpet-making  in  the  Turkish  dominions 
is  the  work  of  other  races^  such  as  the  Greeks  and  Armenians.  The 
Greek  element  is  strongly  predominant  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  for  this  reason  it  has  been  possible  to  evolve  a factory-system,  which 
is  now  so  highly  developed  and  so  ready  to  cater  for  the  needs  of  the 
West  that  carpets  of  any  design  and  colour,  and  of  almost  any  size,  may 
be  ordered  and  finished  within  six  or  eight  weeks.  The  factories  are 
well-equipped  and  not  lacking  in  capital,  which  accounts  for  one  of  the 
chief  differences  between  their  products  and  those  made  in  the  homes. 
The  latter  is  carried  on  by  the  poorer  people  in  their  small  living-rooms 
and,  consequently,  it  is  not  practicable  to  have  a loom  measuring  more 
than  about  6 ft.  wide.  The  rich  factories  on  the  other  hand  have  large 
premises  which  permit  of  the  erection  of  looms  up  to  a width  of  perhaps 
45  ft.  For  this  reason  Smyrna,  and  its  back  country,  Kula,  Ghiordes 
and  Demirdji,  are  able  to  produce  large  carpets  6 X 9,  8 X ii,  9 X 12, 
II  X 13, 12  X 15  ft.  in  size  and  even  much  larger  ones,  which  are  known 
under  the  collective  name  of  Smyrna  carpets  in  Europe  and  America. 
They  are  exported  in  large  numbers  and  are  found  all  over  the  world, 
chiefly  in  use  in  public  rooms,  business  offices,  and  dining-rooms. 

These  carpets  may  be  regarded  as  the  descendants  of  the  large  Ushak 
carpets  which  were  made  in  Asia  Minor  from  at  least  the  sixteenth 
century.  Though  they  are  inferior  in  design  and  coarser  in  texture, 
they  yet  retain  much  the  same  colouring  and  many  of  the  same  technical 
peculiarities.  Such  carpets  were  brought  into  Europe  freely  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  ever  since  have  been  very  largely  used.  So 
well-known  has  this  type  been,  that  the  name  **  Turkey  Carpet  ” was 
at  one  time  applied  to  all  Oriental  rugs,  just  as  it  is  now  common  for 

149 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


nearly  all  to  be  included  by  the  term  ''  Persian/'  The  best  known  types 
of  Smyrna  carpets  are  very  thick  and  durable^  but  among  the  coarsest- 
woven  of  all  rugs^  there  being  only  from  13  to  20  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  They  are  made  entirely  of  wool,  and  while  the  warp  is  usually 
white,  the  weft  is  almost  invariably  dyed  red.  Plates  93  to  97  show 
five  common  types  of  Smyrna  carpets. 

Plate  93.  Modern  Smyrna  carpet — also  known  as  Ushak  or 
Medallion  Carpet.  Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  10  to  16  knots  to 
the  square  inch.  They  range  in  si2;e  from  about  6 X 8 ft.  to  20  X 40  ft., 
and  they  are  made  almost  exclusively  of  three  colours,  red,  green  and 
blue.  They  are  among  the  cheapest  of  Eastern  carpets. 

Plate  94.  Modern  Smyrna  carpet — also  known  as  Ghiordes  carpet. 
Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  13  to  18  knots  to  the  square  inch.  They 
range  in  size  from  6 x 9 ft.  to  20  X 40  ft.,  and  can  be  obtained  in 
whatever  colours  are  in  favour  in  Europe  at  the  time.  They  are  also 
made  with  more  elaborate  designs  as  in  the  next  Plate.  They  are  the 
cheapest  of  the  Smyrna  carpets. 

Plate  95.  Modern  Smyrna  carpet — also  called  Demirdji  carpet. 
Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  16  to  22  knots  to  the  square  inch.  They 
range  in  size  from  6 X 9 ft.  to  20  x 40  ft.,  and  can  be  obtained  in  whatever 
colours  are  in  favour  in  Europe  at  the  time.  They  are  also  made  with 
a central  medallion  on  a plain  ground  as  in  the  last  Plate.  They  tend 
to  be  rather  more  expensive  than  the  last  type. 

Plate  96.  Modern  Smyrna  carpet — also  called  after  various  towns 
of  Asia  Minor.  Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  19  to  58  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  They  range  in  size  from  6 x 9 ft.  to  20  x 40  ft.,  and 
may  be  purchased  in  any  colours,  and  in  a great  variety  of  modern  and 
old  Persian  designs.  When  of  the  same  texture,  they  are  about  the  same 
price  per  square  foot  as  the  last  type. 

Plate  97.  Modern  Hereke  carpet — also  called  Smyrna  carpet. 
Carpets  of  the  kind  have  from  45  to  64  knots  to  the  square  inch,  and 
so  are  the  finest-knotted  of  the  Smyrna  carpets.  They  are  made  in 
the  factory  of  the  Sultan  at  Hereke  (close  to  the  railway  from  Scutari 
to  Angora).  They  are  of  various  designs  and  in  all  sizes.  The  Plate 
shows  one  of  the  best  types,  but  cheaper  carpets  are  made  with  designs 
as  in  Plates  51  and  52.  The  price  is  higher  than  the  other  Smyrna  carpets 
in  proportion  to  the  fineness  of  the  texture. 

A kind  of  carpet  made  of  recent  years  in  Smyrna  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  Sparta.  These  are  mostly  of  small  or  medium  size  and  are 

150 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


knotted  rather  more  closely  than  the  ordinary  Smyrna  carpet.  Their 
designs  are  very  varied  but  are  usually  based  upon  Anatolian  or  Caucasian 
models  and  they  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  products  of  the  latter  region. 

(ii)  Turkish  Carpets  of  the  home  Industry. — Carpets  are  woven  in 
the  homes  about  Smyrna  and  also  in  the  less  accessible  parts  inland, 
but  especially  in  Anatolia  where  the  full  assistance  is  obtained  of  the 
Armenian  element  in  the  population. 

The  fact  that  Anatolia  borders  in  the  West  on  the  region  of  the 
factories  and  that  in  the  East  it  approaches  the  ^one  of  Persian  influence, 
has  had  considerable  effect  on  the  kinds  of  carpet  made.  Those  of  western 
Anatolia  are  reminiscent  in  quality,  colour  and  pattern  of  the  products 
of  the  coast,  whereas  those  from  the  Eastern  side  compete  in  quality  and 
beauty  with  the  good  Persian  and  Caucasian  specimens. 

Generally  speaking,  Turkish  carpets  are  made  entirely  of  wool, 
though  in  some  of  the  finer  ones,  especially  those  from  Ghiordes,  cotton 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  warp  and  weft.  Other  materials  are  so  rare 
as  to  be  quite  exceptional.  The  warp  is  usually  of  white  or  at  least  undyed 
wool : in  the  more  barbaric  types  it  tends  to  be  coarse  and  browner 
than  in  the  others.  The  weft  is  mostly  of  red  wool,  though  white,  yellow 
and  even  blue  are  not  uncommon  colours.  The  usual  plan  is  to  have 
two  shoots  of  weft  after  each  row  of  knots,  and  in  the  coarser  rugs  when 
more  shoots  are  found,  the  larger  number  is  not  constant  throughout 
the  carpet,  but  happens  at  occasional  intervals. 

A peculiarity  often  seen  in  the  weft,  but  perhaps  never  in  rugs  of 
any  other  country,  is  that  it  does  not  invariably  go  right  across  from 
side  to  side,  but  goes  backwards  and  forwards  over  sections  of  the  carpet ; 
each  section  being  roughly  triangular  in  shape.  The  diagonal  lines, 
marking  the  juncture  of  the  sections,  are  clearly  seen  at  the  back  and  are 
sufficient  to  identify  the  specimen  with  Anatolia.  The  convenience 
of  this  plan  when  several  weavers  are  at  work  on  a large  rug  is  obvious, 
for  each  weaver  can  go  on  for  a time  independently  of  the  others,  and 
need  not  wait  till  all  are  ready  to  allow  a shoot  of  weft  right  across  the 
loom.  The  habit  is  still  often  retained  in  smaller  rugs,  and  sometimes 
it  is  carried  to  the  extent  of  using  weft  of  different  colours.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  plain  field  of  some  prayer-rugs  has  a weft  of  the  same  colour 
as  the  pile,  and  this  no  doubt  helps  to  give  a superior  effect  to  the  colour 
of  the  ground.  In  some  cases  it  may  have  induced  the  belief  that  the 
border  was  added  recently  to  a rug  of  older  date. 

The  pile  consists  of  lustrous  wool  of  good  quality  and  is  mostly  of 

151 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


medium  length.  In  the  Yuruk  rugs  it  is^  however^  rather  long,  and 
in  the  Ghiordes  rugs  it  is  notably  short — in  fact  in  these  the  collars  of  the 
knots  are  sometimes  almost  visible.  The  Turkish  or  Ghiordes  knot 
is  invariably  used.  The  selvedge  usually  consists  of  a narrow  web  of 
several  cords  overcast  with  wool,  and  the  ends  are  nearly  always  fringed. 

The  colours  are  bright  and  varied.  No  attempt  is  made  to  get 
a rich  effect  by  means  of  deep  colours  of  quiet  tone,  but  prismatic  hues 
are  placed  together  in  juxtaposition,  rather  in  the  manner  of  a mosaic. 
In  the  newer  rugs  this  somewhat  daring  method  often  gives  unpleasantly 
crude  effects,  but  the  older  ones  challenge  comparison  with  those  of 
Persia  and  other  parts,  although  the  colour-scheme  is  so  different. 

In  point  of  design  the  first  thing  to  notice  is  the  great  prevalence 
of  prayer-rugs,  which  certainly  outnumber  all  other  kinds.  The  niche 
in  such  rugs  more  definitely  suggests  an  archway  than  those  of  Persia, 
Often  there  are  two  columns  supporting  the  arch,  but  even  when  these 
are  not  present,  or  when  they  are  represented  by  a mere  band  running 
down  the  side  of  the  field,  there  is  often  an  indication  at  the  springing 
of  the  arch  of  a flattened  surface  ready  for  receiving  them.  The  arch  is 
angular  rather  than  curved  in  shape,  though  the  straight  lines  are  often 
softened  by  having  a stepped  contour.  The  exact  form  varies  considerably 
in  different  districts,  though  nearly  every  district  has  a type  almost  peculiar 
to  itself.  Cross-panels  (in  reality  short  horizontal  border-stripes)  are 
mostly  found,  either  above  or  below  the  niche  or  sometimes  in  both 
positions.  The  niche  itself  is  plain  more  often  than  not,  but  it  may  be 
ornamented  with  floral  forms  projecting  from  the  sides,  or  sparsely  scattered, 
or  hanging  from  the  top.  Ornament  in  the  last  position  evidently  takes 
the  place  of  the  lamp,  which  itself  is  sometimes  present  there,  or  in  the 
spandrels  above.  The  field  is  never  covered  with  an  all-over  pattern 
(apart  from  a very  small  spot  or  diaper)  but  always,  even  when  most 
ornate,  gives  the  impression  of  a plain  field  with  a little  superimposed 
decoration.  Prayer- rugs  with  several  niches  side  by  side  are  found 
in  Anatolian  work,  and  are  often  falsely  supposed  to  come  from  Eastern 
Turkestan,  where  that  form  is  much  more  common.  The  other  rugs 
of  Anatolia  are  of  various  sizes,  but  never  very  large.  Runners  are  very 
uncommon. 

The  details  of  the  design  are  mostly  derived  from  floral  forms  highly 
conventionalized  ; and  even  when  geometrical  devices  are  seen  it  will 
often  appear  on  closer  study  that  they  really  have  a floral  origin.  There 
is,  however,  a certain  amount  of  purely  geometrical  design,  and  the  rugs 

152 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET  : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


in  which  it  occurs  have  a great  resemblance  to  those  of  Caucasia  and 
are  often  mistaken  for  them.  Certain  floral  devices  are  almost  peculiar 
to  Anatolian  patterns — the  carnation  on  short  sterns^  which  in  various 
stages  of  conventionalization  often  projects  into  the  central  panel ; little 
sprigs  of  three  blossoms  or  three  leaves ; sprays  of  hyacinths ; and  tall 
tulips  on  upright  stems,  which  last  are  often  described  as  Rhodian  lilies. 
Human  figures  and  animals  are  very  rarely  found. 

The  border-stripes,  unlike  those  in  Persian  and  Caucasian  rugs, 
rarely  have  continuous  wavy  stems,  but  are  usually  filled  with  detached 
sprays,  leaves,  blossoms,  or  S-forms,  though  these  are  often  so  closely 
arranged  as  to  give  the  effect  of  a continuous  pattern.  Some  of  the 
borders  still  in  frequent  use  are  derived  with  very  little  alteration  from 
forms  found  in  carpets  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  onwards.  Many 
of  the  more  elaborate  border  patterns  are  almost  peculiar  to  certain 
types  of  rugs  and,  accordingly,  assist  greatly  in  the  problem  of  identi- 
fication. Plate  194  shows  devices  found  almost  exclusively  in  Turkish 
carpets.  The  majority  of  these  are  freely  used  throughout  the  group, 
but  some  are  almost  peculiar  to  certain  types.  For  examples  Figs,  i 
and  14  in  the  plate  are  characteristic  of  Ladiks  ; Fig.  3 of  Mujurs  ; and 
Figs.  5 and  ii  of  Ghiordes  rugs.  Fig.  21  shows  the  lamp  so  often  found 
in  Turkish  prayer-rugs,  and  it  is  a simplification  of  this  device  that  may 
result  in  the  small  figure  of  the  diaper  referred  to  on  p.  157. 

It  must  be  stated  here  that  the  quite  modern  Anatolian  rugs  are 
in  every  way  inferior  to  the  older  ones.  The  patterns  have  perhaps 
altered  least,  but  the  texture  is  coarser  and  looser,  and  the  colours  are 
very  crude  and  often  unsound.  In  fact,  apart  from  the  Kilims,  the 
modern  Anatolian  rugs  are,  as  a whole,  the  worst  of  any  produced  in 
the  East.  The  importance  of  the  group  lies  with  those  of  moderate  or 
greater  age,  and  nearly  all  that  follows  should  be  regarded  as  applying 
to  those  only. 

The  general  characteristics  of  Anatolian  rugs  as  described  above 
are  naturally  somewhat  varied  in  certain  districts,  but  these  variations 
when  of  consequence  will  be  mentioned  in  the  short  description  which 
follows  of  the  recognized  types  of  rugs. 

As  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  give  any  system  of  classification  of  these 
types — apart  from  the  broad  distinction  between  the  rough  nomadic 
and  the  more  refined  rugs — it  will  suffice  to  take  them  without  any 
methodical  order. 

Ghiordes  Rugs,  which  get  their  name  from  the  town  on  the  site 

153 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


of  the  ancient  Gordium^  are  perhaps  the  best  known  and  most  pri2;ed 
of  the  Anatolian  group.  They  are  fairly  finely  woven  and  the  pile  is 
so  short  that  the  wool  never  looks  lustrous.  The  warp,  and  weft,  and, 
less  often,  the  white  part  of  the  pile  are  sometimes  of  cotton.  In  some 
pieces  there  is  an  added  silk  fringe  at  the  corners.  The  colours  are 
chiefly  red,  blue  and  white,  which  apart  from  the  niche  are  never  in  large 
masses.  In  the  later  specimens  the  red  inclines  towards  crimson.  The 
niche  usually  has  a plain  blue  or  red  field,  and  a high  pointed  arch,  often 
supported  by  columns.  There  are  mostly  two  cross-panels.  The  borders 
and  spandrels  are  filled  with  fine  floral  detail.  The  other  rugs  usually 
have  a hexagonal  central  panel  fringed  with  projecting  floral  sprays,  but 
are  otherwise  like  the  prayer-rugs  though  mostly  larger.  A special 
kind  of  prayer-carpet — known  as  the  Ghiordes-Marpudjle — has  narrow 
stripes  running  across  the  whole  carpet. 

Kula  Rugs  are  rather  similar  to  the  last,  but  are  usually  coarser 
in  texture.  The  colours  are  chiefly  red,  yellow,  and  blue.  In  most 
of  the  older  rugs  the  red  (why,  is  not  known)  has  faded  to  a brownish 
yellow  ; so  that  such  rugs  have  a characteristic  blue  and  yellow  appearance. 
The  arch  of  the  prayer-rugs  is  pointed  but  flat,  and  there  is  only  one  cross- 
panel as  a rule.  The  spandrels,  and  even  the  field  sometimes,  are  filled 
with  a diaper  of  repeated  floral  forms.  The  borders  are  peculiar,  as 
they  often  consist  of  a large  number  of  narrow  stripes,  each  filled 
with  small  detached  blossoms  or  buds.  A type,  known  as  **  Cemetery 
Carpets,'"  has  one  or  more  pieces  of  land  with  a tomb  and  cypress  trees. 
The  other  carpets  are  mostly  like  double-ended  prayer-rugs. 

Ladik  Rugs  (named  from  Laodicea)  often  have  the  warp  and  weft 
dyed  the  predominant  colour  of  the  pile.  The  ends  have  a fairly  wide 
red  web,  often  striped  with  other  colours,  ending  in  fringes.  The  colours 
are  chiefly  red  and  blue,  but  with  fairly  large  quantities  of  other  hues, 
and  they  are  used  in  larger  masses  than  in  Ghiordes  rugs.  They  are 
mostly  bright,  but  sometimes  a rich  but  quieter  colour-effect  is  found. 
The  arch  of  prayer-rugs  has  three  points,  and  there  is  a wide  cross-panel 
above  or  below  the  niche,  containing  tall,  upright  tulips.  A typical 
border-stripe  is  one  with  large  rosettes  alternating  with  sprays  of  three 
blossoms.  The  other  rugs,  which  are  not  common,  have  various  patterns, 
in  which  long  hexagonal  panels  and  stars  are  favourite  devices. 

Mujur  Rugs  often  have  a red  or  brown  weft.  They  are  rather 
coarsely  knotted  and  have  a fairly  long  pile.  The  ends  have  coloured 
webs  and  fringes.  The  colours  are  bright  and  numerous — red,  green, 

154 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


blue^  yellow^  and  violet  mostly  being  plentiful.  The  prayer-rugs  have 
a steep,  pointed,  stepped  arch,  which  opens  out  into  a small  lobe  at  the 
point.  There  is  one  cross-panel  above  the  niche.  The  main  border- 
stripe  has  a characteristic  row  of  rosettes  made  into  a square  form  by 
the  addition  of  corner  ornaments,  and  one  of  the  smaller  stripes  usually 
has  a succession  of  touching  lozenges. 

Kir-Shehr  Rugs  resemble  those  of  Mujur  in  weave  and  colour, 
though  green  is  more  plentiful.  The  arch  of  prayer-rugs  is  also  similar 
to  the  last,  but  mostly  has  a larger  number  of  narrow  bands  to  form  its 
contour.  There  is  one  cross-panel,  either  above  or  below  the  niche. 
A characteristic  of  the  border  is  the  occurrence  of  several  narrow  stripes 
like  those  of  a Kula,  but  alternate  ones  are  usually  bright  red  in  colour. 

Nigde  and  Tuzla  Rugs  resemble  the  last  two,  but  are  not  important 
types. 

Bergama  Rugs  (from  the  ancient  Pergamum)  have  always  a dyed 
warp  and  weft  and  a long  silky  pile.  The  ends  have  a wide  web  crossed 
by  coloured  stripes,  and  a tasselled  fringe.  These  ends  often  have  small 
rosettes  on  them,  or  shells  and  other  small  objects  attached  to  them  for 
the  purpose  of  averting  the  evil  eye.  The  colours  are  rich  and  dark 
and  consist  chiefly  of  red  and  blue.  The  rugs  are  nearly  square  in  shape, 
and  prayer-rugs  are  exceptional.  When  they  do  occur  they  have  arches 
of  various  forms,  including  the  peculiar  one  shown  in  Plate  io8a.  The 
designs  are  very  varied  and  hard  to  describe,  but  they  are  mostly  bold 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  rug  and  floral  forms  are  highly  conven- 
tionalized. 

Anatolian  is  the  name  given  in  the  trade  to  a nondescript  lot  of 
rugs  made  throughout  Anatolia.  They  are  mostly  small  in  size,  and  are 
coarsely-woven  with  long,  shaggy,  soft  wool.  The  colouring  is  rather 
crude  and  the  designs  are  very  varied,  but  often  copy  features  from  the 
better  defined  classes.  Any  small  rug  that  does  not  conform  to  one 
of  the  well-known  types  can  with  justice  and  convenience  be  called 
Anatolian. 

Melas  Rugs  (named  from  Melassa)  form  an  ill-defined  group  char- 
acterized chiefly  by  the  form  of  the  prayer  arch,  which  is  narrow  and 
furnished  with  a diamond-shaped  lobe  at  the  point  (Plate  113). 

Konia  Rugs  (named  from  Iconium)  are  similar  to  the  last  group, 
but  have  a pointed  arch  with  a small  triangular  projection  at  its  springing 
(Plate  1 13). 

Makri  Rugs  are  sometimes  called  Rhodian,  but  are  not  made  in 

155 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


that  island.  They  are  divided  into  a number  of  arched  niches  and  are 
often  compared  to  a cathedral  window. 

Yuruk  Rugs^  unlike  the  last  few  classes,  form  a well-defined  group. 
They  are  made  by  the  Kurdish  mountaineers  of  the  West  and  have  much 
in  common  with  the  Nomadic  rugs  of  the  Caucasus.  The  wool  is  long 
and  shaggy  and  the  colours  are  dark  and  characteristic,  consisting  of 
brown,  red  and  blue,  with  a little  deep-toned  white.  The  pattern  consists 
mostly  of  concentric  diamonds,  heavily  fringed  with  latch  hooks.  They 
are  often  mistaken  for  Caucasian  products ; but  should  be  distinguished 
by  their  colour-scheme. 

The  Plates  98  to  114  show  specimens  of  all  the  principal  types 
described  above,  and  should  be  sufficient  for  identifying  any  fairly 
characteristic  specimen.  Pieces  which  do  not  follow  these  types  may 
be  difficult  or  impossible  to  associate  with  any  definite  district,  but  those 
who  have  had  many  through  their  hands  can  often,  by  paying  attention 
to  their  subtler  features,  group  them  with  certain  well-known  types  even 
if  they  differ  from  them  in  many  particulars. 

Plate  98.  Ghiordes  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  65  to  no  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  si^e  is  generally  about  ft,  x ft.  They  are  somewhat  rough 
to  the  touch,  and  have  a short  and  lustreless  pile.  The  chief  colours 
are  red,  blue  and  white.  The  ground  of  the  niche  is  usually  blue  or 
red,  the  former  being  perhaps  the  more  common ; a white  ground  is 
very  rare.  The  main  border-stripe  of  this  specimen  has  a pattern  which 
has  come  down  almost  unchanged  from  the  sixteenth  century ; in  it 
may  be  seen  sprays  of  the  hyacinth,  which  was  so  much  used  in  early 
Turkish  art.  Ghiordes  prayer-rugs  more  often  have  no  columns  and 
a steeper  arch  than  this  one,  and  one  of  the  two  cross-panels  is  generally 
below  the  niche.  Ghiordes  rugs  command  rather  higher  prices  than 
similar  rugs  in  equal  condition,  A good  specimen  is  considered  to 
show  the  best  work  done  in  Anatolia  during  recent  centuries. 

Plate  99.  Kis  (i.e..  Maiden) -Ghiordes  Carpet. 

These  are  given  as  presents  to  brides,  or  according  to  another  account 
are  woven  by  a bride  as  a sample  of  her  skill  in  carpet-making.  They 
have  from  60  to  90  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  si^e  is  generally  about 
3^  ft.  X 6 ft.  They  are  rough  to  the  touch,  and  have  a short  and  lustreless 
pile.  The  chief  colours  are  white,  blue  and  red.  The  arrangement 

156 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


of  the  fields  both  with  regard  to  the  medallion  and  the  shape  of  the  corners, 
follows  a type  of  rug  common  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  main 
border-stripe,  which  is  a corruption  of  an  early  pattern,  is  peculiar  to 
Kis-Ghiordes  rugs.  The  small  objects  forming  the  diaper  of  field  and 
border  may  possibly  be  conventionalized  lamps. 

Plate  ioo.  Kula  Prayer -carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  very  generally,  but 
erroneously,  as  Ghiordes.  They  have  from  6o  to  90  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  The  size  is  about  4 ft.  X 6 ft.  They  are  fairly  hard  to  the  touch. 
The  pile  is  short  and  differs  from  that  of  most  of  the  Anatolian  prayer-rugs 
in  being  without  any  lustre.  The  chief  colours  are  blue,  red  and  yellow. 
This  example  has  the  typical  Kula  colouring,  the  red  being  fairly  well 
preserved.  It  has  not  the  usual  repeated  narrow  stripes  in  the  border, 
but  the  arrangement  of  leaves  in  the  principal  stripe  produces  much  the 
same  effect.  Antique  pieces,  probably  owing  to  the  short  pile  and  rather 
loose  weave,  are  generally  in  very  bad  condition.  Kula  prayer-carpets 
with  a purple  ground  are  not  much  prized. 

Plate  ioi.  Kula  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  called  **  Cemetery  Carpets,^'  and  in  the 
trade  are  also,  erroneously,  known  as  Ghiordes.  They  have  from  60 
to  90  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  size  is  about  ft.  to  6 ft. 
They  are  somewhat  rough  to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  lustreless 
pile.  The  chief  colours  are  blue,  red  and  yellow.  The  repeated  designs 
in  the  field  represent  a tomb  with  a cypress  and  another  tree ; from 
which,  of  course,  the  name  **  Cemetery  Carpet  **  is  derived. 

Plate  102.  Ladik  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Ghiordes  or 
Kula.  They  have  from  65  to  no  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  size 
varies  from  3 ft.  X 4 ft.  to  4 ft.  X 6 ft.  They  have  a lustrous  pile  of 
medium  length.  The  principal  colours  are  red,  blue,  green,  and  yellow. 

Plate  103.  Ladik  Prayer-carpet  (Dated  a.h.  1211  = a.d.  1797). 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Ghiordes  or 
Kula.  They  have  from  65  to  90  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  size 
is  generally  from  3 ft.  X 4^  ft.  to  4^  ft.  X 6 ft.  They  are  soft  and  flexible 
and  have  a lustrous  pile  of  medium  length.  The  chief  colours  are  red, 
blue,  green,  and  yellow.  The  main  border-stripe  is  almost  peculiar 
to  Ladiks. 


157 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 
Plate  104,  Ladik  Carpet* 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  50  to  70  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
size  is  about  3 ft.  X 4I  ft.  They  are  soft  and  pliable^  with  a lustrous 
pile  of  medium  length.  The  chief  colours  are  light  red^  blue,  and  green. 
This  design  would  not  often  be  found  ; but  the  Plate  serves  as  an  example 
of  the  kind  of  pattern  seen  in  Ladiks  that  are  not  prayer-rugs. 

Plate  105.  Ladik  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  about  70  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
size  is  3I  ft.  X 7 ft.  They  are  soft  and  pliable  with  a lustrous  pile  of 
medium  length.  This  specimen  is  not  characteristic  of  the  type,  and 
clearly  has  been  affected  by  nomadic  influences,  as  can  be  seen  by  the 
small  conventional  animals  and  other  detached  devices.  A study  of 
the  illustration  without  an  examination  of  the  actual  carpet  would  be 
insufficient  to  connect  this  with  certainty  with  the  typical  Ladiks.  It 
shows  well,  however,  the  kind  of  variation  from  type  that  may  be  met 
with. 

Plate  106.  Mujur  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Anatolian  or 
Sultan  carpets.  They  have  from  45  to  65  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
usual  size  is  ft.  X 5 ft.  They  are  soft  and  pliable  and  have  a fairly 
short  and  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  red,  green,  blue,  yellow 
and  violet.  The  two  largest  border-stripes  are  characteristic.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  cross-panel  is  an  abbreviated  form  of  that  commonly 
seen  in  Ladiks.  These  rugs  have  a very  sparkling  appearance.  They 
are  made  in  the  town  of  Mujur  on  the  river  Kisil-Irmak. 

Plate  107A.  Kir-Shehr  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Sultan  or  Anatolian 
carpets.  They  have  from  45  to  65  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual 
size  is  about  3^  ft  X 4I  ft.  They  are  soft  and  pliable  and  have  a lustrous 
pile  of  medium  length.  The  chief  colours  are  red,  green,  white,  and 
blue.  The  narrow  stripes  in  the  border  are  more  clearly  marked  in 
most  specimens.  The  multiple  bands  forming  the  arch  may  be  contrasted 
with  those  in  Plate  57.  They  are  made  in  the  town  of  Kir-Shehr  on  the 
river  Kisil-Irmak. 

Plate  107B.  Anatolian  Saph  (or  Family)  Prayer-rug. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  about  50  to  70  knots  to  the  square  inch. 

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The  size  is  usually  about  3^  ft,  x 11^  ft.  They  are  soft  and  pliable 
and  have  a lustrous  pile  of  medium  length.  Each  carpet  is  equivalent 
to  several  single  prayer-rugs  joined  together  and  it  is  from  this  that  their 
name  is  derived.  The  niches  are  variously  coloured  in  the  same  carpet. 
These  carpets  are  sometimes  erroneously  supposed  to  come  from  Chinese 
Turkestan.  Some,  however,  are  found  with  patterns  so  close  to  other 
Anatolian  rugs,  such  as  Mujurs,  that  no  mistake  can  be  made  in  their 
case. 

Plate  io8a.  Jakshibehdir  (i.e.,  charcoal-burner)  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  constitute  a subdivision  of  Bergama  carpets 
and  are  often  called  by  that  name.  They  have  from  50  to  65  knots  to 
the  square  inch.  The  size  is  generally  about  2^  ft.  X 3^  ft.  They 
are  soft  and  pliable  and  have  a long  and  often  very  close  pile.  The  chief 
colours  are  dark  blue  and  dark  red ; and  the  whole  colour-scheme  is 
sombre,  whence  is  derived  the  name. 

Plate  io8b.  Bergama  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  size  ranges  from  2|  ft.  X 3J  ft.  to  4 ft.  X 5 ft.  They  are  soft  and 
pliable,  and  have  a fairly  long  and  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are 
dark  cherry-red,  dark  blue,  dark  brown,  and  that  of  natural  camel-hair. 
The  pattern  is  often  picked  out  with  yellow  and  white. 

Plate  109.  Anatolian  Kilim  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  tapestry-woven  and  have  about  twelve  warp- 
threads  to  the  linear  inch.  They  are  soft  and  thin.  The  size  is  about 
ft,  X 5I  ft.  The  colours  are  very  bright  but  the  effect,  even  in  the 
modern  specimens,  is  rarely  displeasing.  Large  numbers  are  made  by 
the  mountain-tribes  from  the  region  of  Erzerum ; but  the  manufacture 
is  fairly  widespread.  It  is  quite  common  to  find  metal  thread  woven  in 
with  the  wool.  Kilims,  other  than  prayer-rugs,  are  made  in  still  greater 
numbers.  Many  of  the  largest  are  in  two  strips  sewn  together  down 
the  middle.  The  patterns  are  often  reminiscent  of  those  of  the  well- 
known  types  of  pile-rugs,  though  the  technique  does  not  allow  a very 
close  adherence.  They  are  extremely  useful  for  hangings  and  covers 
of  all  sorts,  and  are  comparatively  inexpensive. 

Plate  no.  Anatolian  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Mosul,  Yuruk, 
Kurd,  or  Montagnard.  They  have  from  40  to  60  knots  to  the  square 

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HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


inch.  The  size  is  usually  about  3I  ft.  x 7I  ft.  They  are  generally  made 
in  the  mountainous  regions  and  are  pliable  and  have  a long^  rough  and 
lustrous  pile.  The  shape  is  almost  invariably  irregular.  The  colours 
are  chiefly  cinnamon-red^  dark  blue,  and  yellow.  They  are  closely 
akin  to  the  Yuruk  carpets. 

Plate  iiia.  Makri  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  called  Rhodian  Carpets.  They  have 
from  45  to  65  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  size  is  about  3I  ft.  X ft. 
They  are  rather  stiff,  and  have  a lustrous  pile  of  medium  length.  The 
chief  colours  are  blue,  yellow  and  red.  The  sparkling  patches  of  colour, 
together  with  the  arrangement  of  the  field,  give  an  effect  which  has 
been  aptly  compared  to  that  of  a stained-glass  window. 

Plate  iiib.  Anatolian  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Sultan  carpets. 
They  have  from  45  to  65  knots  to  the  square  inch  and  range  in  size  from 
2^  ft.  X 3 ft.  to  3|-  ft.  X 4^  ft.  They  are  soft  and  pliable,  and  have 
a long  and  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  red,  yellow,  blue  and 
brown. 

Plate  ii2A.  Anatolian  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade,  on  account  of  their 
light  background,  as  Akterai  (i.e..  White  Castle).  They  have  from  40 
to  60  knots  to  the  square  inch,  and  are  usually  small  and  almost  square 
in  shape.  They  are  soft  and  pliable  and  have  a fairly  short  and  lustrous 
pile.  The  colour  of  the  ground  is  white  or  yellow,  and  the  pattern  is 
dark  in  tone,  often  with  brown-black  predominating.  The  likeness 
to  Caucasian  design,  which  is  so  commonly  noticed  in  Anatolian  carpets, 
is  very  marked  here. 

Plate  ii2B.  Mel  as  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  60  to  80  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
They  are  soft  and  pliable,  and  have  a very  lustrous  pile  of  medium  length. 
Older  pieces,  which  are  now  getting  very  scarce,  are  generally  striped  as 
in  the  illustration  and  are  very  bright  in  colour. 

Plate  113.  Melas  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Anatolian.  They 
have  from  60  to  80  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  size  is  generally  about 
2\  ft.  X 4 ft.  They  are  made  in  the  town  of  Melassa  and  its  environs 

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near  to  the  south-west  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  are  soft  and  pliable  and 
have  a fairly  short  but  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colour  is  strawberry- 
red,  but  there  is  often  a good  deal  of  yellow  in  the  border.  This  example 
has  the  characteristic  Melas  prayer-arch. 

Plate  114.  Yuruk  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  sometimes  erroneously  known  in  the  trade 
as  Daghestan  or  Kasak.  They  have  from  50  to  70  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  The  usual  si2;es  are  2^  ft.  X ft.,  3i  ft.  X 5I  ft.  and  3 ft.  X 7 ft. 
They  are  soft  and  pliable  and  have  a long,  lustrous  pile.  The  chief 
colours  are  dark  red,  brown,  dark  blue,  and  white.  The  border  of  this 
specimen  is  characteristic  of  the  type. 

(6)  Caucasian 

Although  the  production  of  carpets  in  the  Caucasus  does  not,  as 
far  as  is  known,  go  back  much  beyond  the  eighteenth  century,  and  although 
the  proximity  of  both  Turkey  and  Persia — two  such  great  carpet- weaving 
countries — has  naturally  had  much  influence,  yet  the  Caucasian  carpets 
are  a more  independent  and  well-marked  group  than  might  be  expected. 
On  the  whole  the  influence  of  Turkey  has  been  greater  than  that  of  Persia, 
especially  with  regard  to  technique. 

Caucasian  carpets  are  made  almost  entirely  of  wool,  though,  as  will 
be  seen  later,  a little  cotton  occurs  in  the  foundation  of  some  of  the  rugs. 
The  warp  is  mostly  undyed  and  ranges  in  colour  from  pure  white  to  a 
deep  brown.  Wools  of  different  colour  are  often  mixed  before  spinning, 
but  even  when  the  colour  of  each  strand  is  uniform,  it  is  often  found 
that  differently- coloured  yarns  are  twisted  together  to  make  a thread. 
The  weft  also  is  commonly  undyed.  The  normal  plan  is  to  have  two 
shoots  of  weft  after  each  row  of  knots,  but  a feature  in  some  of  the  nomadic 
rugs  is  the  occurrence  of  three  or  more  shoots  at  irregular  intervals.  The 
Ghiordes  knot  is  exclusively  employed  in  the  pile-carpets.  The  pile  is 
invariably  of  wool  which  is  mostly  of  good  quality  and  lustrous  in 
appearance.  In  the  nomadic  rugs  the  pile  is  long  and  in  the  others  of 
medium  length,  or  short,  but  never  very  short.  The  sides  are  usually 
finished  with  an  overcast  woollen  selvedge  of  several  cords,  though  the 
Persian  method  of  employing  a single-cord  selvedge  is  not  unknown. 
The  ends  are  very  simply  treated,  there  being  a short  plain  web  and  a 
simple  fringe,  after  perhaps  a few  rows  of  knots  formed  by  tying  small 
groups  of  warp -threads  together. 


161 


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HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


In  the  design  of  Caucasian  rugs,  naturalistic  drawing  is  not  found, 
and  floral  forms,  though  perhaps  not  more  conventionalized  than  in 
Turkish  rugs,  are  not  used  to  so  great  an  extent.  Geometrical  design, 
which  does  not  differ  in  its  general  aspect  from  that  in  Turkish  rugs, 
is  very  much  used,  but  though  the  general  aspect  is  similar,  in  the  details 
of  the  drawing  it  is  easy  to  notice  a difference  between  Caucasian  and 
Turkish  designs.  The  same  borders  and  field  devices  are  found  over 
and  over  again  in  the  two  countries,  but  the  treatment  of  the  Caucasian 
version  is  always  distinct  from  that  of  the  Turkish  (cf.  Plate  196,  No.  8, 
with  Plate  194,  No.  22),  though  it  is  not  easy  to  give  a general  description 
of  the  kind  of  change  that  is  found.  Perhaps  it  may  be  said  that  the 
Caucasian  rendering  shows  greater  angularity  and  more  quaintness. 

Many  patterns  have  also  been  borrowed  from  Persia.  Borders 
with  wavy  floral  stems,  so  rarely  found  in  Turkey,  are  quite  common, 
though  the  treatment  is  decidedly  more  angular  and  the  blossoms  have 
usually  degenerated  to  almost  geometrical  rosettes.  Lattice  field-diapers, 
which  are  met  with  in  a few  types  of  rugs,  have  also  a Persian  origin. 
Caucasian  carpets  have,  in  addition,  numerous  field  and  border  patterns 
quite  peculiar  to  themselves.  Generally  the  masses  of  colour  are  greater 
in  Caucasian  than  in  Turkish  or  Persian  rugs,  and  fine  detail  is  not  common. 
The  popularity  of  the  latch-hook  is  very  probably  due  to  its  utility  in 
softening  the  outline  of  a large  mass  of  colour.  Central  medallions, 
which  are  so  common  in  Persian  rugs,  are  almost  unknown  ; while 
scattered  devices  such  as  stars,  octagons,  rosettes,  quite  unrelated  to 
each  other,  are  much  employed.  It  might  be  said  that  the  rugs  of  Persia 
are  designed  from  the  centre  and  those  of  the  Caucasus  from  the 
ends. 

Among  other  features  commonly  seen  in  the  field  may  be  mentioned 
rectangular  panels ; large  irregular  forms  of  radiating  contour,  sometimes 
known  as  sunbursts  ** ; and  small  conventional  renderings  of  animals, 
birds,  and  human  figures. 

Plates  195  to  199  contain  motives  for  the  most  part  peculiar  to 
Caucasian  carpets.  Counterchanged  border  patterns  are  shown  in  Plate 
196  (i,  2 and  6),  and  Plate  199  (17);  and  various  renderings  of  S-forms 
are  seen  in  Plate  196  (5,  8 and  9) ; Plate  198  (6,  ii  and  15),  and  Plate 
199  (7)*  It  is  probable  that  Plate  196  (3,  4 and  10),  and  Plate  199  (12 
and  16)  are  all  debased  forms  of  early  borders  with  Kufic  lettering.  Plate 
196  (19)  is  the  **  Crab  **  pattern,  almost  peculiar  to  Kazaks,  and  Plate  196 
(22)  is  the  **  Leaf  and  Wine-cup  **  border  very  often  seen  in  Shirvans. 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


Plate  198  (18)  is  the  so-called  **  Georgian  **  pattern ; and  Plate  198  (19) 
is  the  border  characteristic  of  Chichi  rugs. 

The  colouring  is  usually  bright  and  vigorous  but  rarely  unpleasing ; 
even  the  modern  rugs  being  as  a rule  satisfactory  in  this  respect.  The 
dyes  of  the  latest  rugs  are  not  on  the  whole  inferior  to  those  of  other 
countries^  though  a certain — and  too  large — amount  of  crude  and  unsound 
colours  is  met  with. 

The  classification  of  Caucasian  carpets  into  definite  types,  depending 
upon  the  place  of  their  manufacture,  is  a very  difficult  problem  even 
for  the  experienced  connoisseur.  The  attempt  of  many  writers  to  do 
more  than  is  possible  in  this  respect  has  led  to  much  confusion,  and  to 
the  bewilderment  of  amateurs,  who  cannot  understand  the  distinction 
between  the  types  as  defined  in  the  text-books,  and  despair  of  reconciling 
the  description  given  by  dealers  with  these  definitions.  Only  a very 
simple  classification  will  be  attempted  here,  though  the  various  trade 
names  will  be  mentioned  with  as  much,  or  as  little,  information  as  can 
be  given  about  their  significance. 

The  various  Caucasian  carpets  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups, 
according  as  they  are  produced  north  or  south  of  the  great  mountain 
range  which  crosses  the  country  from  north-west  to  south-east.  To 
the  north  of  the  mountains  lies  the  province  of  Daghestan,  which  has 
given  its  name  to  some  of  the  best  Caucasian  carpets  produced.  They 
are  fine  in  texture  and  have  frequently  a cotton  warp  and  weft.  Lattice- 
diapers  in  the  field,  and  a diagonal  arrangement  of  small  devices,  are 
common.  The  drawing  is  refined  and  the  detail  finer  than  in  most  of 
the  Caucasian  products.  There  is  a tendency  towards  a mosaic  effect 
in  the  design.  The  weaving,  as  seen  from  the  back,  is  very  regular, 
Kabistan  is  a name  given  to  some  Daghestan  rugs.  It  is  not  claimed 
that  the  difference  is  great  but  they  are  said  to  be  slightly  inferior.  As 
the  word  Kabistan  is  a corruption  of  Kubistan,  which  is  derived  from  the 
town  of  Kuba,  and  as  the  name  Kuba  is  assigned  to  another  alleged  type, 
it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  geographical  distinction  is  negligible, 
Derbend,  or  Derbent,  the  main  town  of  Daghestan  and  the 
distributing  centre  of  its  rugs,  is  the  name  given  to  a somewhat  coarser 
variety  of  rug  with  a woollen  foundation. 

If  a Daghestan  rug  has  a rather  floral  pattern,  or  exhibits  large 
sunbursts,'^  it  is  called  a Kuba,  from  an  important  town  towards  the 
south, 

Lesghian  is  a name  applied  to  nomadic  rugs  of  the  province,  but 

163 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


no  serious  attempt  has  been  made  to  distinguish  them  from  Trans- 
Caucasian  nomadic  rugs,  though  they  are  said  to  have  a selvedge  of  several 
cords  rather  than  of  one. 

To  the  south  of  the  mountains  lies  the  district  of  Shirvan,  which 
produces  many  rugs,  and  the  name  is  applied  to  all  Caucasian  carpets 
that  do  not  appear  to  belong  to  one  of  the  other  types.  They  are  similar 
to  the  products  of  Daghestan,  but  tend  to  be  coarser  and  to  have  larger 
and  less  refined  patterns  and  colouring.  Cotton  is  more  rarely  used. 
So  great  is  the  variety  of  design  found  in  Shirvan  rugs  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  it,  A few  types  of  field  design, 
however,  are  so  common  that  they  must  be  mentioned.  One  of  these 
is  a succession  of  diamond-shaped  panels,  each  the  full  width  of  the 
field,  and  touching  the  next  one  at  the  angle.  The  diamonds  are  mostly 
fringed  with  latch-hooks.  Often  the  diamonds  are  so  deeply  stepped 
as  to  appear  rather  octagonal  or  cross-shaped  in  form.  Another  plan 
is  to  have  a succession  of  large  rectangular  panels,  separated  only  by  a 
narrow  space,  A modification  of  this  arrangement  is  to  have  the  field 
itself  contracted  at  intervals,  so  that  virtually  a succession  of  rectangles 
connected  by  wide  necks  is  formed.  This  last  design  is  characteristic 
of  Shirvans,  Nearly  all  the  border-stripes  found  in  Shirvan  rugs  are 
also  used  in  other  Caucasian  types,  but  one  much  favoured  is  known  as 
the  **  leaf  and  wine-cup  **  border,  A wavy  line  of  serrated  leaves  has 
in  the  interspaces  devices  resembling  wine-cups  on  stems,  but  probably 
really  conventionalized  floral  buds, 

A group  of  Shirvans  with  a border  peculiar  to  itself  (see  Plate  198  (19) ) 
are  known  as  Chichi,  Tchetcen,  or  Tzitzi  from  the  name  of  the  tribe 
that  makes  them. 

The  city  of  Baku  gives  its  name  to  rugs  with  dull,  faded-looking 
colours  and  a pattern  of  large,  elaborately- drawn  cones  of  peculiar  form 
in  the  field. 

An  important  group  of  rugs  made  by  wandering  tribes  and  having 
the  usual  characteristics  of  nomadic  weavings,  is  called  by  the  name 
Kazak,  which  is  a form  of  the  word  Cossack,  The  pile  is  long  and 
lustrous  and  the  weft  often  crosses  three  or  more  times  at  intervals.  The 
sides  are  finished  with  a selvedge  of  several  cords,  overcast  with  wool  of 
different  colours,  which  extends  for  various  distances  along  the  side. 
These  changes  of  colour  in  the  selvedge  seem  to  be  quite  capricious  but 
are  highly  characteristic  of  the  type.  The  ends  have  fairly  wide  coloured 
webs  and  knotted  fringes.  The  patterns  of  Kazak  rugs  are  very  varied 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET  : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


and  are  not  dissimilar  to  the  more  geometrical  of  the  Shirvans.  There 
is  usually  only  one  wide  border-stripe,  which  often  has  patterns  peculiar 
to  the  type  (e.g*  Plate  196  (i9))»  The  dyes  are  mostly  sound  and  the 
colouring,  though  bold  and  bright,  is  almost  invariably  very  pleasing. 
Though  not  of  very  fine  texture,  these  rugs  are  among  the  most  satisfactory 
to  be  had  nowadays. 

The  towns  Tiflis  and  Kutais  give  their  names  to  unimportant 
or  indefinite  types  of  rugs,  resembling  Kazaks,  but  differing  from  them 
in  having  cone-patterns  and  tree-forms  in  the  design. 

Tcherkess  (or  Circassian)  rugs  are  Kazaks  of  a tawny  colour,  and 
with  heavy,  braided  ends. 

There  is  a flourishing  carpet  industry  in  the  southern  province  of 
Karabagh.  The  ordinary  specimens  bear  the  name  of  the  district  and 
the  better  ones  are  called  after  the  town  of  Shusha.  The  latter  tend 
to  be  broader  in  proportion.  Both  kinds  are  rather  loosely  woven  and 
have  a pile  of  medium  length.  The  weft  is  often  dyed  red,  and  the 
selvedge  is  usually  in  lengths  of  different  colours  like  in  the  Kazaks. 
The  designs  have  a tendency  to  resemble  Persian  models.  The  colouring 
of  Karabagh  carpets  is  characteristic,  as  it  nearly  always  includes  an 
amount  of  bright  purple  and  light  blue.  Shusha  carpets  have  a rich 
colour  scheme,  consisting  chiefly  of  dark  blue,  dark  red  and  brown. 

Rugs  called  after  the  town  of  Gengha  in  the  same  province  are 
very  much  like  the  Kazaks.  They  have,  however,  an  unusually  large 
number — up  to  six  or  eight — shoots  of  weft  at  frequent  intervals ; and 
white  is  a prominent  colour  in  the  design. 

Kilims  are  woven  throughout  the  Caucasian  region.  They  are 
sometimes  not  easy  to  distinguish  from  the  similar  rugs  of  Turkey,  but 
often  there  is  so  much  resemblance  in  their  patterns  to  exclusively  Caucasian 
designs  as  to  put  their  origin  beyond  doubt. 

Thin  and  soft  Kilims  made  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Shusha  are 
known  in  the  trade  by  the  name  of  Verne. 

Another  variety  of  Kilim,  called  Sile,  is  distinguished  by  its  type 
of  design. 

The  woven  carpets  known  as  Soumaks  are  said  to  get  their  name 
from  the  Caucasian  town  of  Shemakha.  The  chief  centre  of  their 
production  is,  however,  Derbend.  Soumaks  as  usually  met  with  range 
in  size  from  about  5 ft.  X 7 ft.  to  7 ft.  X 10  ft. ; though  there  is  in  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  an  exceptionally  finely-woven  one  measuring 
only  3 ft.  6 in.  X 7 ft.  A very  usual  field  pattern  consists  of  three  or 

165 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


more  flattened  octagons  ; but  the  variety  in  design  is  considerable*  The 
older  Soumaks  have  a deep  and  rich  colouring,  but  the  modern  ones 
are  cruder  and  often  have  unsound  dyes. 

On  the  whole  the  Caucasian  region  may  be  said  to  produce  most 
desirable  carpets.  Their  prices  are  not  high,  and  it  is  at  least  as  easy 
to  find  among  them,  as  anywhere  else,  soundly-woven  rugs  of  good  colour 
and  design. 

Plates  1 15  to  146  show  most  of  the  commoner  types  of  these  carpets. 
Plate  115.  Daghestan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Karabagh,  Ka^ak, 
Kenguerlu,  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to 
the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  about  2|  ft.  X 3|-  ft.  and  4 ft.  X 
6^  ft.  They  have  a soft  and  lustrous  pile  of  medium  length.  The  chief 
colours  are  red,  blue  and  white ; the  first  two  alternating  with  the  third 
in  the  field. 

Plate  116.  Daghestan  Prayer- carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum). 
Dated  a.h.  1287  (=  a.d.  1870).  3 ft.  10  in.  x 3 ft.  2 in. 
Warp  : Three-ply  white  wool.  On  one  level.  21  to  i inch. 

Weft : White  cotton.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 
Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  10  to  i inch.  105  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Nine.  White  (field  and  spandrels)  : red  (2nd  border) : 
dark  blue  (3rd  border)  : blue  : black  (ist  border)  : ochre : 
light  green  : brown  : dark  red. 

Plates  117  and  ii8a.  Daghestan  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Kazak,  Gengha, 
Karabagh,  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  about  2^  ft.  X 3|-  ft.,  4 ft.  x 9 ft. 
and  ft.  X ft.  They  have  a soft  and  lustrous  pile  of  medium  length. 

The  chief  colours  are  red  and  blue,  with  some  white  and  grey ; the  main 
border-stripe  usually  being  white. 

Plate  ii8b.  Caucasian  Kilim.  9 ft.  4 in.  x 5 ft.  6 in. 

Warp  : Brown  and  white  wool.  15  to  i inch. 

Weft : Wool.  About  55  shoots  to  i inch. 

Colours:  Ten.  Crimson  (field) : white:  green-blue:  black  (border) : 
blue  : dark  red  : red  : yellow  : ochre  : light  red.  The  pattern 
of  this  carpet  is  a rendering,  as  close  as  a somewhat  coarse 
tapestry  texture  will  allow,  of  the  well-known  **  sunburst  ** 
device. 


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Plate  119.  Derbend  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Persian.  They 
have  from  45  to  60  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  si2;e  is  5 ft.  X 
10^  ft.  They  are  soft  and  pliable  and  they  have  a long  and  very  lustrous 
pile.  The  chief  colours  are  blue  and  red,  with  some  white.  The  pattern 
of  the  illustrated  specimen  with  its  curious  bracket-like  forms  is  typical 
of  Derbend  rugs.  The  main  border-stripe  is  adapted  from  a common 
Ghiordes  pattern.  Old  rugs  of  this  type  are  rare,  and  modern  pieces 
fetch  rather  higher  prices  than  other  Caucasian  carpets  of  similar  quality. 

Plate  120A.  Daghestan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Karabagh,  Gengha, 
Mosul,  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  100  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  3 ft.  X 4^  ft.  and  4 ft.  X 9 ft.  They 
have  a lustrous  pile  of  medium  length.  The  chief  colours  are  blue,  red 
and  white  ; the  darker  stripes  in  the  field  being  often  alternately  blue  and 
red.  Such  a diagonal  arrangement  of  the  field  is  common  in  Daghestans. 

Plate  120B.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Moghan,  Talish, 
Daghestan,  and  also  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  85  knots 
to  the  square  inch.  The  size  is  about  3^^  ft.  X ft.  They  are  fairly 
hard  to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The 
chief  colours  are  dark  blue,  red  and  white.  The  large- tailed  birds  in 
the  field  should  be  noticed. 

Plate  121.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  as  Kuba,  Kabistan, 
Talish,  Gengha,  and  also  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  100 
knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  size  is  about  3^  ft.  X 9 ft.  They  are 
fairly  hard  to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The 
colours  are  chiefly  red  and  blue  with  lesser  quantities  of  white  and  yellow. 
This  specimen  has  the  field  contracted  at  intervals,  which  arrangement 
is  peculiar  to  Shirvans ; and  in  the  border  are  two  stripes  with  a small 
repeating  pattern  of  carnations,  which  is  found  in  various  types  of  Caucasian 
carpets. 

Plate  122A.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Kuba,  Kabistan, 
Talish,  Gengha,  and  also  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  100 

167 


HAND-V/OVEN  CARPETS 


knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  si2;e  is  about  si  ft.  X 9 ft.  They  are 
fairly  hard  to  the  touch,  and  have  a short  and  very  lustrous  pile.  The 
chief  colours  are  red  and  blue  with  a smaller  quantity  of  white.  This 
specimen  shows  the  cross-panels  and  the  ''  leaf  and  wine-cup  border 
which  are  so  common  in  Shirvans. 

Plate  i22B.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Kuba,  Kabistan, 
Talish,  Gengha,  and  also  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  85 
knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  size  is  about  si  ft.  x 9 ft.  They  are 
fairly  hard  to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The 
chief  colours  are  red,  blue,  and  lesser  quantities  of  white  and  yellow. 
This  carpet  with  its  rayed  medallions  is  of  the  kind  mostly  called  Kuba. 
The  peculiar  pattern  in  the  widest  border-stripe  is  usually  known  as 
the  **  Georgian  **  border,  after  the  district  of  Georgia.  Its  origin  is  not 
clear,  though  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  derived  from  some  floral  form. 
It  is  quite  peculiar  to  Caucasian  carpets. 

Plate  123.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan  or 
simply  Persian  carpets.  They  have  from  60  to  85  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  The  size  is  about  si  ft*  X 5 ft.  They  are  fairly  hard  to  the  touch 
and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  dark 
blue,  red  and  white.  The  main  border-stripe  has  the  leaf  and  wine- 
cup  pattern. 

Plate  124.  Shirvan  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  knov/n  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan,  Kasak, 
or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  75  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  size  is  about  ft.  X 5 ft.  They  are  rather  hard  to  the  touch  and 
have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  blue 
and  red,  with  little  or  no  white. 

Plate  125.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan,  Mecca, 
or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  65  to  100  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  size  is  about  si  ft*  X ft.  They  are  rather  hard  to  the  touch, 
and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  dark 
blue  with  lesser  quantities  of  red  and  white.  The  pattern  of  the  field 
in  this  specimen  is  a comparatively  rare  one. 

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Plate  126.  Shirvan  Carpet, 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Kuba^  Kabistan, 
Talish^  Gengha^  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  85  knots 
to  the  square  inch.  The  size  is  about  3^  ft.  X 9 ft.  They  are  fairly 
hard  to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief 
colours  are  red  and  blue  with  lesser  quantities  of  v/hite  and  yellow.  The 
main  border-stripe  with  two  kinds  of  angular  S -forms  is  based  on  a 
common  Turkish  pattern  (see  Plate  194^  No.  22)/  though  this  rendering 
is  typically  Caucasian. 

Plate  127.  Shirvan  or  Chichi  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan^  Mecca, 
or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  85  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  size  is  about  3|-  ft.  X 6|  ft.  They  are  fairly  hard  to  the  touch  and 
have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  dark 
blue,  with  lesser  quantities  of  red  and  white.  The  main  border-pattern, 
consisting  of  rosettes  separated  by  diagonal  ribbon-like  bands,  is  that 
associated  with  the  name  **  Chichi."' 

Plate  128.  Shirvan  or  Baku  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Mecca,  Daghestan, 
Koltuk,  Kuba,  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  85  knots 
to  the  square  inch.  The  size  is  about  ft.  X 5 ft.  or  4I  ft.  X 9 ft. 
They  are  rough  to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile. 
The  chief  colours  are  blue,  red  and  purple,  often  rather  faded. 

Plate  129.  Shirvan  or  Baku  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan,  Mecca, 
and  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  90  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  3I  ft.  X 5^^  ft.  and  5 ft.  X 9 ft.  They  are 
rough  to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief 
colours  are  blue  and  red  with  a lesser  amount  of  white.  The  conventional 
birds  seen  in  this  specimen  are  very  common  in  Baku  rugs. 

Plate  130.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Derbend,  Kuba, 
or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  90  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  usual  sizes  are  3^  ft.  X 5 ft.  and  5 ft.  X 9 ft.  They  are  rough  to  the 
touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours 

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HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


are  blue  and  red,  with  a lesser  amount  of  white.  The  pattern  of  this 
specimen  is  not  so  common  as  those  of  the  other  Shirvans  illustrated. 

Plate  131.  Shirvan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Mecca^  or  simply 
as  Persian.  They  have  from  60  to  90  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
usual  si^e  is  about  4 ft.  X 9 ft.  They  are  rough  to  the  touch  and  have 
a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  blue  and  red, 
with  a lesser  quantity  of  white.  The  dotted  stripes  of  several  colours 
in  the  border  and  the  angular  S -forms  are  typically  Caucasian,  though 
a border  somewhat  like  the  former  is  found  in  the  Persian  rugs  of  Shiraz. 
It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  Shirvan  and  Shiraz  rugs,  though  coming 
from  such  distant  places,  are  often  confused,  and  the  name  Mecca  ** 
is  erroneously  given  to  both  classes.  A close  study  of  the  technique 
will  soon  show  the  difference  between  the  two,  even  when  they  are 
superficially  alike  in  pattern. 

Plates  132A  and  133.  Kazak  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan, 
Gengha,  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  about  ft.  X 4 ft.,  4 ft.  X 9 ft.  and 
4I  ft.  X 6-|  ft.  They  have  a thick,  long  and  lustrous  pile.  The  chief 
colours  are  red  and  blue,  with  a lesser  amount  of  white,  the  ground 
of  the  main  border-stripe  usually  being  white.  The  border-pattern, 
which  is  seen  in  two  degrees  of  conventionalization,  is  derived  from  the 
motive  of  four  leaves  springing  from  a rosette ; but  from  the  resulting 
form  is  often  known  as  the  Crab  **  pattern. 

Plate  132B.  Shirvan  or  Baku  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan,  or 
simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  85  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  size  is  about  3 ft.  X 5 ft.  or  4|-  ft.  X 9 ft.  They  are  rather  hard 
to  the  touch  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief 
colours  are  blue,  red,  and  some  purple,  but  they  are  often  faded  to  a 
dull  brownish  appearance.  This  specimen  has  the  typical  pattern  of 
elaborately  drawn  cones,  which  is  associated  with  the  name  ''  Baku.'' 

Plate  134.  Kazak  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Gengha,  Karabagh, 
or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to  the  square  inch. 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET  : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


The  usual  siz:es  are  2,\  ft*  X 4 ft*,  4 ft*  x 9 ft*  and  4|-  ft*  x 6^  ft*  They 
have  a long,  thick  and  very  lustrous  pile*  The  chief  colours  are  red, 
blue  and  white* 

Plate  135*  Kazak  Carpet* 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan,  Gengha, 
or  simply  as  Persian*  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to  the  square  inch* 
The  usual  size  is  about  5 ft*  X 6|  ft*  They  have  a thick,  long  and  very 
lustrous  pile*  The  chief  colours  are  red  and  blue,  with  some  white  and 
green,  the  ground  of  the  main  border-stripe  being  commonly  white* 

Plates  136  and  137*  Kazak  Carpets* 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan,  Gengha, 
Derbend,  or  simply  as  Persian*  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to  the 
square  inch*  The  usual  sizes  are  ft*  X 4 ft*,  4 ft*  x 9 ft*  and  4|-  ft*  x 
ft*  They  have  a thick,  long  and  very  lustrous  pile*  The  chief  colours 
are  red  and  blue,  with  some  white  and  green,  the  border  usually  having 
a fair  amount  of  white* 

Plate  138*  Kazak  Prayer-carpet* 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  also  in  the  trade  as  Daghestan,  Gengha, 
Derbend,  or  simply  as  Persian*  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots  to  the 
square  inch*  The  usual  sizes  are  si  ft*  X 4 ft*,  4 ft*  X 9 ft*  and  4^  ft*  X 
6i  ft*  They  have  a thick,  long  and  very  lustrous  pile*  The  chief  colours 
are  red  and  blue,  with  some  white  and  green,  the  border  usually  having 
a fair  amount  of  white*  The  small  angular  arch  at  the  top  of  the  field, 
and  the  oblong  recess  at  the  bottom,  constitute  the  usual  arrangement 
of  Kazak  prayer-rugs* 

Plates  139,  140  and  141*  Kazak  Carpets* 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Daghestan, 
Shirvan,  Gengha,  or  simply  as  Persian*  They  have  from  50  to  80  knots 
to  the  square  inch*  The  usual  sizes  are  2|  ft*  X 4 ft*,  4 ft*  X 9 ft*  and 
4i  ft*  X 6i  ft*  They  have  a thick,  long  and  very  lustrous  pile*  The 
chief  colours  are  red  and  blue,  with  some  white  and  green,  the  border 
usually  having  a fair  amount  of  white* 

Plate  142*  Karabagh  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum)* 
8 ft*  9 in*  X 4 ft*  10  in* 

Warp  : White  wool*  On  one  level*  16  to  i inch* 

Weft : White  wool*  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots* 

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HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Knots  : Wool.  Ghiordes.  6 to  i inch.  50  to  the  square  inch. 

Colours : Ten.  Purple  (field  and  2nd  border)  : light  blue  (ist 
border)  : dark  blue  (panels  in  field)  : white  : yellow  : black  : 
light  red  : brown  : red  : green. 

Plates  143  and  144.  Verne  Carpets. 

These  are  made  by  the  ordinary  Kilim  process,  and  are  thin,  soft 
and  almost  alike  on  both  sides.  The  usual  si^e  is  about  4 ft.  X 5ift. 
The  chief  colours  are  Indian  red,  white  and  yellow.  They  are  mostly 
used  for  covers. 

Plate  145.  SiLi  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  type  are  woven  by  the  ordinary  Kilim  process.  They 
often  consist  of  two  pieces  sewn  together  and  are  thin,  soft,  and  almost 
alike  on  both  sides.  Their  principal  use  is  for  covering  tables  and  for 
similar  purposes.  The  usual  ske  is  4 ft.  x 5|-  ft.  The  chief  colours 
are  Indian  red,  white  and  yellow. 

Plate  146.  Soumak  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Persian.  They 
are  woven  by  the  special  Soumak  method,  and  have  from  8 to  25  warp- 
threads  to  the  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  about  5^  ft.  x ft.,  6|  ft.  x 
10  ft.  and,  more  rarely,  8 ft.  X ii|  ft.  The  chief  colour  is  dark  Indian 
red,  with  the  pattern  picked  out  in  yellow.  The  flattened  octagons  in 
this  specimen  are  typical  of  the  group. 

(c)  Persian 

Of  all  the  great  classes  into  which  the  carpets  of  the  East  are  divided, 
the  carpets  of  Persia  have  the  highest  reputation,  and  on  the  whole  this 
reputation  is  deserved.  It  must  not  be  supposed  for  a moment  that 
Persian  carpets  of  medium  or  of  good  quality  are  better  than  the  best 
from  other  parts,  but  the  finest  Persian  specimens,  either  of  the  past 
or  the  present,  do  certainly  surpass  all  others  in  refinement  of  drawing, 
in  subtlety  and  harmony  of  colour,  and  in  perfection  of  weaving.  There 
is  so  much  variety  to  be  found  in  the  carpets  that  come  from  different 
parts  of  this  vast  region  that  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  give  a general 
description  of  them,  and  in  order  to  make  the  subject  manageable  it  is 
almost  necessary  to  divide  them  into  geographical  groups  before  discussing 
the  separate  types ; but  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  treat  the  whole  class 
-together,  it  will  be  advisable  to  do  so. 

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Even  in  Persia  wool  is  by  far  the  commonest  material  used ; but 
cotton,  which  is  rare  in  Turkey  and  Caucasia,  is  employed  to  a very  large 
extent  in  the  foundation  of  carpets ; and  silk,  which  is  quite  exceptional 
in  those  countries,  is  here  found  fairly  often.  For  the  warp,  wool  and 
cotton  are  used  about  equally,  and  both  are  as  a rule  undyed.  The 
arrangement  of  the  warp  on  two  levels,  one  set  being  right  behind  the 
other,  is  very  common  in  Persia,  but  scarcely  ever  seen  in  other  countries. 
The  weft  is  usually  of  the  same  material  as  the  warp.  A woollen  weft 
is  commonly  undyed,  but  in  a few  types  is  coloured  red  or  brown.  When 
the  weft  is  of  cotton,  it  is  frequently  dyed,  blue  and  red  being  the  favourite 
colours.  Two  shoots  of  weft  is  the  usual  number,  but  in  a few  types 
only  one  shoot  is  employed,  and  in  many  of  the  older  carpets,  and  a few 
of  the  recent  ones,  three  shoots  are  found. 

For  the  pile,  both  the  Sehna  and  the  Ghiordes  knot  are  largely  used, 
whereas  the  former  is  unknown  in  modern  Turkish  and  Caucasian  carpets. 
The  texture,  on  the  average,  tends  to  be  fine,  for  while  the  coarser  carpets 
are  about  the  same  as  those  of  Turkey  and  Caucasia  the  finer  ones  are 
two,  three  or  several  times  more  closely  knotted  than  any  from  those 
countries.  With  certain  exceptions  the  ends  of  Persian  carpets  are 
finished  in  a very  simple  way,  there  being  a short  web  either  terminating 
at  the  loops  of  the  warp,  or  furnished  with  a plain  fringe.  The  sides 
nearly  always  have  a selvedge  of  one  cord  only,  overcast  with  fine  wool 
or  silk. 

There  is  a tendency  for  Persian  carpets  to  fall  into  two  groups 
according  to  the  general  nature  of  their  technique,  and  these  groups 
may  be  said  quite  roughly  to  have  separate  geographical  ranges.  Towards 
the  north-west  there  is  mostly  found  a woollen  warp  on  one  level,  associated 
with  a coarse  texture,  a long  pile  and  the  Ghiordes  knot.  Towards  the 
south-east  the  warp  is  usually  of  cotton  arranged  on  two  levels ; the 
texture  is  fine,  the  pile  is  short  and  the  Sehna  knot  is  used.  There  are 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  the  general  tendency  cannot  be  overlooked. 

Persian  carpets  have  a soft,  rich  and  deep  colouring  rather  than  a 
brilliant  and  decided  one.  The  softness  is  to  a great  extent  due  to  the 
use  of  several  shades  of  each  colour  and  to  the  fact  that  the  various  colours 
rarely  occur  in  large  masses. 

In  point  of  design,  Persian  carpets  are  far  more  naturalistic  than 
any  other  kind,  though  even  with  them  the  naturalism  is  not  really  carried 
far.  Nearly  all  the  ornament  is  based  on  floral  forms  and,  if  a 
few  unimportant  border-stripes  be  excepted,  purely  geometrical  patterns 

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are  very  rare.  The  general  character  of  Persian  design  can  be  best 
understood  by  the  study  of  such  examples  as  are  illustrated  in  the 
second  volume  of  this  work ; but  a few  features  often  met  with  may 
be  briefly  mentioned. 

Firsts  attention  may  be  drawn  to  the  prevalence  of  central  medallions 
of  all  sorts  often  associated  with  corner-pieces  which  soften  the 
rectangularity  of  the  field.  Secondly^  the  fields  or  that  part  of  them  not 
occupied  with  medallion  or  corner-pieces,  is  very  often  covered  with 
comparatively  small  repeating  patterns,  such  as  diapers  or  lattices ; or 
with  an  intricate  arrangement  of  scrolling  stems  interspersed  with  leaves 
and  blossoms.  Thirdly,  a great  majority  of  the  borders  are  filled  with 
wavy  floral  stems,  rather  than  a succession  of  detached  devices  which  is 
so  common  in  Turkish  and  Caucasian  carpets. 

Devices  and  patterns  peculiar  to  Persian  rugs  are  illustrated  on  Plate 

202. 

For  the  purpose  of  discussing  in  more  detail  the  various  recognised 
types  of  Persian  carpets,  it  is  convenient  to  divide  them  into  six  large 
groups,  according  to  the  provinces  in  which  they  are  made. 

(i)  Azerbaijan,  In  Karadagh,  a district  bordering  in  the  north 
on  Caucasia,  carpets  are  produced  which  resemble  closely  in  quality  and 
pattern  the  carpets  of  Karabagh.  They  have  a woollen  warp  and  weft 
and  a long,  lustrous  and  fairly  coarse  pile,  tied  with  the  Ghiordes  knot. 
A peculiar  and  characteristic  red  colour  is  much  used,  and  the  ground 
is  often  of  undyed  camel-hair.  The  field  is  mostly  covered  with  a floral 
diaper,  or  the  Herati  or  Mina  Khani  pattern,  and  the  border  is  more 
geometrical  than  that  of  most  Persian  rugs. 

Near  the  town  of  Tabriz,  a type  of  carpet  has  been  made  lately 
which  is  considered  one  of  the  best-knotted  and  most  beautiful  of  Persian 
rugs.  The  warp  is  of  cotton  on  two  levels,  and  the  weft  is  also  ot  cotton 
frequently  dyed  pink.  The  Ghiordes  knot  is  used ; the  pile  is  short 
and  harsh  to  the  touch,  and  the  texture  is  fine.  There  is  mostly  a two-cord 
selvedge,  and  the  rugs  are  stiff  and  tend  to  curl  at  the  edges.  The  designs 
are  of  the  elaborate  floral  type,  and  are  perhaps  somewhat  too  formally 
and  accurately  balanced,  which  is  due  no  doubt  to  the  strong  European 
influence  under  which  they  are  manufactured. 

In  the  district  of  Gorevan  (or  Yoraghan),  not  very  far  from  Tabriz, 
new  carpets  are  made  also  under  European  influence.  The  warp  and 
weft  are  of  cotton,  which  in  the  case  of  the  latter  is  mostly  dyed  blue  or 
brown.  They  have  the  Ghiordes  knot  and  are  coarsely  woven.  The 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


colour-scheme  is  unusual^  consisting  of  copper-red^  dark  blue  and  buff, 
distributed  in  rather  conspicuous  masses.  The  design  nearly  always 
includes  concentric  hexagonal  medallions ; and  the  drawing  is  peculiarly 
bold  and  angular, 

Herez,  Serapi  and  Bakshi  are  names  given  to  carpets  which  do  not 
differ  in  important  particulars  from  Gorevans,  Suj-bulak,  a village  in 
the  province,  gives  its  name  to  carpets  resembling  those  of  Kurdistan, 

(ii)  Irak-Ajemi*  One  of  the  most  famous  types  of  Persian  carpets 
is  made  in  this  province  and  is  called  after  the  elevated  plain  of  Feraghan, 
These  carpets  have  both  warp  and  weft  made  of  cotton,  the  weft  sometimes 
being  dyed  blue  or  pink.  The  warp  is  on  one  level.  In  the  older  pieces 
the  Sehna  knot  is  used,  but  in  later  specimens  the  Ghiordes  knot  is  also 
common.  The  pile  is  fairly  short  and  of  good  wool,  A large  number 
of  different  colours  generally  occur  in  the  rugs,  and  as  usual  red  and 
blue  predominate,  though  there  is  also  a notable  amount  of  green.  The 
colours  are  not  used  in  large  masses  unless  for  a plain  ground,  and  generally 
when  viewed  from  a distance  no  part  of  the  rug  differs  much  in  tone  from 
the  rest.  The  field  is  mostly  covered  with  a repeating  pattern  such  as 
the  Herati,  Guli  Hinnai  or  some  other  floral  diaper,  the  first-named 
being  the  most  common,  A feature  almost  peculiar  to  the  type  is  the 
cutting  off  of  the  corners  of  the  field  by  straight  serrated  lines. 
Occasionally  a pole-medallion  on  a light-coloured  ground  is  seen,  but 
this  is  not  very  common.  The  border  is  narrow  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  rug,  and  a favourite  pattern  in  the  main  stripe,  which  often 
has  a green  ground,  is  that  sometimes  known  as  the  **  turtle  ” (Plate  155), 
Feraghans  were  largely  made  at  one  time,  but  new  ones  of  good  quality 
are  rather  rare.  They  are  very  satisfactory  for  their  wearing  qualities. 
Another  type  of  rug  similar  in  technique  to  the  Feraghan  is  known 
as  the  Saraband  (from  Sarawan,  a mountainous  district).  The  weft  is 
nearly  always  blue,  and  the  knot  is  the  Sehna,  though  sometimes  a small 
proportion  of  Ghiordes  knots  are  mixed  with  them — a very  unusual  thing 
in  other  types.  It  is  in  their  designs  that  these  rugs  chiefly  differ  from 
the  Feraghans,  They  have  neither  central  medallions  nor  corner-pieces, 
but  the  field  is  covered  with  a repeating  pattern  of  detached  cone-devices. 
The  main  border-stripe  usually  has  a white  ground,  and  contains  a wavy 
stem  with  a cone  depending  from  each  bend.  They  are  often  of  the 
Kanara  shape,  and  are  very  strong  and  serviceable, 

A well-marked  group  of  carpets  are  called  Hamadan,  after  the  town 
of  that  name  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ecbatana,  They  have  a white 

175 


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cotton  warp,  and  a weft  of  cotton,  wool  or  camel-hair*  The  weft  only 
crosses  once  after  each  row  of  knots.  The  Ghiordes  knot  is  used  and 
the  pile  is  of  medium  length.  The  most  striking  thing  about  the  colouring 
is  the  large  amount  of  natural  camel-hair  that  is  used.  The  other  colours 
are  soft  and  harmonious.  There  is  usually  a pole-medallion  in  the  field, 
or  more  than  one  if  the  rug  is  a long  one ; and  the  corners  of  the  field 
are  frequently  shaped.  The  ground  is  much  lighter  in  tone  than  the 
medallions  and  corner-pieces,  and  is  sometimes  covered  with  a delicate 
diaper.  The  border-stripes  have  no  characteristic  patterns,  but  a 
peculiarity  connected  with  the  border  is  that  there  is  a wide,  plain  band 
of  camel-hair  all  round  the  edge  of  the  rug.  This  band,  which  often 
has  small  devices  upon  it  arranged  quite  capriciously,  is  very  characteristic 
and  enables  an  unmutilated  specimen  to  be  recognized  at  a glance.  A 
good  many  Kanara  are  found  among  Hamadans,  but  they  are  often 
skilfully  cut  down  so  as  to  appear  like  rugs  of  the  commoner  type. 

The  town  and  district  of  Jushaghan  has  been  noted  for  its  carpets 
for  a long  time  (see  p.  37).  The  warp  and  weft  are  of  cotton,  or  sometimes 
of  wool,  which  in  the  case  of  the  weft  is  mostly  dyed  red  or  brown.  There 
are  sometimes  three  shoots  of  weft  after  the  knots.  The  Ghiordes  knot 
is  used  and  the  pile  is  thick,  soft  and  lustrous.  The  colouring  is  very 
rich  and  mellow.  The  field  does  not  have  a medallion  but  is  covered 
all  over  with  an  irregular  floral  diaper  on  rather  a large  scale,  and  there 
is  often  an  impression  of  an  incomplete  lattice  running  through  it. 
The  border  has  no  characteristic  patterns. 

The  city  of  Kashan  gives  its  name  to  a type  of  rugs  which  are 
considered  to  be  the  best  that  Persia  produces  nowadays.  The  warp 
is  of  cotton  and  lies  on  two  levels  ; the  weft  is  of  fine  blue  cotton.  The 
Sehna  knot  is  used  and  the  pile,  which  is  very  closely  knotted,  is  fairly 
short  but  lustrous  and  very  soft  and  velvety.  The  colours  are  deep, 
rich  and  mellow ; and,  unfortunately,  to  get  this  effect  the  modern  rugs 
are  nearly  all  slightly  washed,  though  not  to  an  injurious  extent.  The 
design  is  rather  like  that  of  Tabriz  rugs  but  is  less  formal.  There  are 
usually  medallions  in  the  field,  and  the  whole  of  the  rug  including  the 
border  is  filled  with  gracefully  drawn  floral  patterns  tending  towards 
the  naturalistic.  It  is  not  probable  that  many  rugs  of  this  group  are 
actually  made  in  Kashan,  but  the  type  is  a fairly  definite  one,  though 
on  account  of  its  high  reputation  it  has  become  customary  to  call  any  good 
rug  a Kashan. 

Most  of  the  silk  rugs  made  in  Persia  during  the  last  half-century 

176 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET  : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


can  be  associated  with  the  Kashan  group.  They  are  mostly  very  fine 
in  texture  and  rarely  have  fewer  than  200  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
warp  is  either  of  silk  or  cotton^  and  the  weft  usually  of  cotton.  The 
designs  are  sometimes  based  upon  the  early  Persian  traditions,  but  more 
often  follow,  though  not  very  closely,  the  modern  woollen  rugs  of  Persia. 
In  the  East  they  are  not  usually  placed  upon  the  floor,  for  which  position 
they  are  indeed  unsuited ; but  are  used  for  covering  seats  and  for  similar 
purposes  by  the  wealthier  people.  None  of  the  later  silk  rugs  appear 
to  go  back  farther  than  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  there 
is  no  evidence  that  such  rugs  were  made  in  Persia  during  the  century 
or  more  preceding  that  date. 

The  name  Saruk  (not  to  be  confused  with  Sarakhs)  is  given  to  rugs 
similar  to  Kashans  but  not  of  quite  such  good  quality.  They  sometimes 
have  a rendering  of  the  early  palmette  pattern,  which  is  known  as  the 
Shah  Abbas.'^ 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Muskabad  are  made  rugs  rather  like  the 
Kashans  and  Saruks  but  considerably  coarser.  The  warp  lies  on  two 
levels  not  widely  separated,  and  the  Ghiordes  knot  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  Sehna.  The  colouring  is  quiet  and  harmonious,  and  the 
designs  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Feraghans. 

The  town  of  Sultan abad  is  a centre  of  the  European- controlled 
carpet  industry,  and  as  Muskabads  are  marketed  there,  they  are  often 
called  by  its  name. 

Mahal  and  Savalan  are  other  trade  names  given  to  some  Muskabads. 

(iii)  Ardelan,  In  this  province  is  the  town  of  Sehna,  which  has 
given  its  name  to  the  knot  largely  used  in  Persia,  and  also  to  one  of  the 
most  esteemed  types  of  Persian  carpets.  The  Sehna  carpet  has  a warp 
and  weft  of  white  cotton,  the  former  being  on  one  level.  The  weft 
generally  crosses  only  once  after  each  row  of  knots,  but  in  some  pieces 
it  crosses  twice.  The  Sehna  knot  is  used  and  the  texture  is  as  fine  as 
in  any  type  of  carpet,  there  being  occasionally  more  than  four  hundred 
knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  pile  is  very  short  and  stands  so  nearly 
upright  that  the  surface  feels  rough  and  like  a file  in  whichever  direction 
the  hand  is  passed  over  it.  The  wool  is  good  and  lustrous,  though  the 
lustre  is  not  very  apparent  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the  pile.  The 
colours  are  numerous  and  rather  bright ; but  they  are  only  used  in  small 
masses,  so  that  the  general  effect  is  soft  rather  than  vigorous.  The 
designs  resemble  those  of  Feraghans  and  Sarabands.  There  are  often 
concentric  pole-medallions  and  corner-pieces,  and  the  rest  of  the  ground 

177  N 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


is  either  plain  or  covered  with  the  Herati  pattern  or  some  other  floral 
diaper,  or  else  filled  with  repeated  cone-devices.  The  whole  field 
may  be  covered  with  such  patterns  to  the  exclusion  of  medallions  and 
corner-pieces.  The  border  is  rather  narrow  and  has  no  patterns  peculiar 
to  the  type.  The  rugs  are  thin,  yet  rather  stiff,  and  are  not  suited  for 
hard  wear.  The  edges,  as  often  in  the  case  with  tightly-woven  rugs, 
have  a tendency  to  curl  up. 

From  the  town  of  Bijar  come  rugs  very  different  from  the  Sehnas. 
The  warp  is  of  thick  wool,  and  lies  on  two  levels.  The  weft  is  also  of 
wool,  which  is  often  dyed  red.  The  pile  is  of  heavy  lustrous  wool  of 
medium  length,  tied  with  the  Ghiordes  knot.  The  colours  are 
rich  and  bright — red,  blue,  white  and  natural  camel-hair  colour 
predominating.  The  designs  are  very  various,  but  generally  combine 
the  features  found  in  such  rugs  as  Sehnas  with  those  of  the  truly  Kurdish 
rugs  made  in  the  neighbourhood.  A peculiarity  often  noticed  is  for 
the  pattern  to  be  quite  irregular  and  suddenly  change  in  the  middle  or 
at  one  end  of  the  rug.  Bijar  rugs  are  sometimes  called  by  the  names 
Sarakhs  and  Lule. 

Throughout  the  province  the  Kurds  make  rugs  which  are  given 
specifically  the  name  Kurdistan.  They  have  a coarse  woollen  warp 
lying  on  two  levels  only  slightly  separated,  and  a woollen  weft. 
The  Ghiordes  knot  is  used  and  the  pile  is  very  long  and  thick.  The 
rugs  are  so  stoutly  woven  that  frequently  they  can  hardly  be  bent.  The 
ends  are  often  treated  very  elaborately,  and  have  coloured  threads  running 
through  or  woven  patterns  on  the  webs.  The  loose  ends  of  the  warp 
are  looped  and  braided,  or  interwoven  with  each  other  in  a great  number 
of  intricate  ways.  The  colours  are  rich  and  fairly  numerous,  with  red, 
blue,  and  white  predominating.  Quite  a feature  is  the  want  of  uniformity 
in  each  colour,  which  often  consists  of  several  different  shades.  As 
a consequence  of  this,  the  grounds  are  frequently  streaked  in  a very 
noticeable  way.  Patches  of  colour  varying  from  blue  to  green  are 
very  characteristic  and  very  pleasing.  The  designs  are  various,  but 
lattice  patterns  are  much  favoured,  and  the  floral  diaper  called  the  Mina 
Khani  is  very  common.  The  border  is  not  conspicuous.  Kurdistan  rugs, 
though  coarse,  are  mostly  soundly  made  and  harmonious  in  appearance, 
and  are  consequently  a very  useful  kind. 

The  city  of  Mosul  gives  its  name  to  a large  number  of  rugs  which 
are  marketed  there.  They  are  practically  Kurdistans  from  the  country 
both  West  and  East  of  Mosul,  and  they  cannot  be  distinguished  by  any 

178 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET  : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


rigid  criterion  from  the  Kurdistan  rugs  as  described  above.  In  specimens 
called  by  the  trade  Mosul,  it  will  usually  be  found  that  the  warp  lies 
on  one  level,  and  that  the  rugs  are  softer  and  more  flexible  than  other 
Kurdistans.  The  more  definite  patterns  are  not  as  a rule  found,  but 
the  design  tends  towards  small  diapers. 

Another  name,  restricted  to  a group  of  Kurdistans  made  near  Hamadan, 
is  Karaje.  These  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  fact  that  the  weft 
only  crosses  once  after  each  row  of  knots,  though  the  one  shoot  may 
consist  at  irregular  intervals  of  two  or  more  untwisted  strands. 

The  city  of  Kermanshah  in  this  province  gives  its  name  to  a group 
marketed  there  but  made  near  Tabri2;  or  Sultanabad.  They  have  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  rugs  of  the  districts  where  they  are  made, 
but  have  a tendency  to  resemble  in  colour  and  design  the  rugs  of  Kirman. 

(iv)  Khorassan*  Of  the  various  kinds  of  carpets  made  in  this  province, 
one  kind  is  called  specifically  Khorassan.  These  have  a cotton  warp 
on  two  levels ; and  a cotton  weft  which  is  usually  dyed  blue.  The 
Sehna  knot  is  used  and  the  pile  is  long,  lustrous  and  often  unevenly  cut. 
A peculiarity  of  the  knotting  that  is  frequently  seen  is  for  the  knots  to 
be  tied  on  four  warp  threads  instead  of  two,  at  intervals  throughout 
the  rug.  This  causes  a line  across  the  back,  which  appears  at  first  sight 
to  be  due  to  a difference  in  the  manner  of  inserting  the  weft,  rather  than, 
as  it  actually  is,  to  a change  in  the  knotting.  The  colours  are 
numerous  and  bright.  Rose-red,  dark  blue,  white  and  purple  are  mostly 
included,  and  the  general  effect  is  rather  purple  in  character.  A deep 
vermilion  and  a red-purple  which  fades  easily  are  often  found  and  are 
rather  characteristic.  In  the  design  a very  common  motive  peculiar 
to  the  type  is  a compound  cone-device  consisting  of  two  or  more  small 
cones  springing  from  a larger  one  (see  Plate  202  (13) ) ; these  devices 
are  found  in  both  field  and  border,  detached,  or  forming  a diaper.  Central 
medallions  and  corner-pieces  are  common ; or  the  Herati  pattern  is 
used.  Sometimes  the  field  is  divided  into  a number  of  narrow  vertical 
bands,  each  resembling  a border.  A common  border-pattern  is  shown 
on  Plate  202  (2).  Khorassan  rugs  are  usually  large  in  si^e,  and  one 
peculiarity  is  that  there  are  often  short  ends  of  thread  hanging  loose 
at  the  back. 

A group  of  Khorassan  carpets  is  called  Meshed,  after  the  chief 
town  of  the  province.  They  are  generally  finer  and  more  firmly  woven, 
with  a shorter  and  more  even  pile.  The  colouring  tends  to  be  more 
delicate,  with  less  of  the  purple  character.  The  designs  are  mostly 

179 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


of  the  central  medallion  type,  and  do  not  include  the  peculiar  Khorassan 
border,  and  not  so  often  the  compound  cone-device,  Mesheds  and 
Khorassans,  however,  may  be  regarded  as  the  two  halves  of  a graduated 
series  of  rugs,  so  that  some  specimens  cannot  be  certainly  classified. 

A quite  different  type  of  rug,  and  one  much  more  closely  resembling 
the  rugs  of  North-West  Persia,  is  called  after  the  town  of  Herat.  The 
warp  and  weft  may  be  either  of  wool  or  cotton,  and  the  warp  lies  on  two 
levels,  though  they  are  not  always  very  widely  separated.  The  Ghiordes 
knot  is  mostly  used  and  the  pile  is  soft  and  of  medium  length.  The 
chief  colours  are  dark  blue,  red,  white,  green  and  yellow ; but  there  is 
mostly  a faint  tinge  of  purple  in  the  colouring.  The  field  is  covered 
all  over  with  a floral  diaper,  mostly  the  Herati  (which  of  course  gets 
its  name  from  the  same  city),  but  sometimes  the  Mina  Khani  or  some 
other  pattern.  The  border  is  mostly  conspicuous ; a favourite  pattern 
being  that  shown  on  Plate  202  (i). 

(v)  Kir  man.  The  carpets  made  in  this  province  have  been  practically 
free  from  Western  influence,  and  though  considerable  variation  of  pattern 
is  seen  in  them,  they  are  all  called  Kirmans.  The  warp  is  of  cotton 
and  lies  on  two  levels ; the  weft  is  of  blue  cotton  or  sometimes  of  fine 
wool.  The  Sehna  knot  is  used,  and  the  pile  is  soft  and  silky,  of  medium 
length  and  very  closely  woven.  The  colours  are  light  in  tone  and  soft 
and  delicate ; those  most  frequently  occurring  being  white,  grey,  rose, 
pale  brown  and  pale  blue.  The  design  is  generally  more  naturalistic 
than  in  any  other  kind  of  carpet.  Many  sorts  of  flowers,  especially  roses, 
are  nearly  always  included  in  the  design.  Besides  these,  there  often  are 
trees  such  as  the  cypress,  vases,  animals,  birds  and  even  human  figures. 
Inscriptions,  stating  the  name  of  the  maker,  are  perhaps  more  common 
in  these  rugs  than  in  any  others.  There  may  be  a medallion  or  other 
arrangement  of  the  ornament,  but  it  is  the  naturalistic  detail  that  is  so 
characteristic. 

In  quite  recent  years  it  has  become  a custom  to  make  rugs  of  an 
extraordinarily  fine  texture,  with  as  many  as  a thousand  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  Though,  of  course,  these  are  very  costly  to  produce,  the 
result  unfortunately  is  not  equivalent  to  the  expenditure,  for  the  knotting 
is  too  fine  to  give  either  a pleasing  or  a durable  fabric.  The 
designs  too  of  these  very  fine  rugs  are  rarely  satisfactory.  They  depart 
entirely  from  tradition  and  exhibit  perhaps  symbolical  or  narrative 
subjects  with  lengthy  inscriptions ; or  there  may  be  crowds  of 
historical  personages,  or  a spiritless  copy  of  a European  picture.  In 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET  : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


fact^  the  designs  are  not  suitable  for  carpets^  and  the  subjects  would 
be  much  better  rendered  in  some  other  medium.  The  originality  of 
the  Kirman  weaver  is  shown  in  other  ways  too^  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  production  of  carpets  with  a plain-woven,  unknotted 
ground,  and  a pattern  knotted  in  the  usual  way.  In  some  of  these  rugs 
a gold-coloured  or  grey  weft  is  used,  probably  with  the  idea  of  giving 
the  effect  of  the  gold  and  silver  backgrounds  of  some  of  the  antique  Persian 
rugs. 

(vi)  Farsistan  or  KashkaL  All  the  carpets  made  in  this  province 
have  marked  characteristics  of  technique  which  make  them  easy  to  recognise, 
though  there  is  considerable  variety  of  design.  Different  types  are 
described  by  writers,  but  the  difference  between  them  is  so  slight  that 
they  cannot  always  be  distinguished.  The  most  important  type  is  known 
as  Shiraz,  after  the  town  of  that  name.  These  have  a white  woollen 
warp  on  one  level,  and  a red  woollen  weft  that  crosses  twice  after  each 
row  of  knots.  The  Sehna  knot  is  the  most  common,  but  the  Ghiordes 
is  also  used.  The  pile  is  fairly  long  and  is  very  soft  and  lustrous,  and 
the  wool  gives,  perhaps,  richer  and  more  transparent  colours  than  any 
other  grown  in  Persia.  There  is  a single- cord  selvedge,  which  is  overcast 
in  short  lengths  of  different  colours,  mostly  red  and  blue,  and  there  are 
often  tassels  depending  from  the  selvedge  at  intervals.  There  are  broad 
webs  at  each  end  woven  in  horizontal  coloured  stripes,  again  mostly  red 
and  blue ; and  these  webs  are  often  embroidered  slightly  with  coloured 
wool.  The  colours  are  deep  and  rich.  Blue  and  red  predominate, 
but  there  are  usually  small  areas  of  white  which  stand  out  very 
conspicuously.  Another  favourite  colour  is  a peculiar  grey-green,  which 
is  not  often  seen  in  other  rugs.  The  design  is  more  geometrical  than 
that  of  most  other  Persian  carpets,  and  as  free  use  is  made  of  latch-hooks 
and  small  conventional  animals  and  birds,  Shiraz  rugs  are  often  mistaken 
for  Caucasian  products.  The  most  common  field-design  is  a long 
hexagonal  panel,  or  a succession  of  hexagonal  panels  linked  together. 
The  field  is  often  shaped  in  various  forms  outlined  with  straight  lines. 
The  ground  outside  the  panel  is  often  filled  with  parallel  bands,  each 
of  which  has  a small  pattern.  The  whole  field  is  frequently  covered 
with  a succession  of  small  angular  cones,  which  may  have  different 
colourings  but  are  often  arranged  so  that  those  in  diagonal  lines  are  coloured 
alike.  When  none  of  these  schemes  are  used,  the  field  is  usually  filled 
with  a variety  of  detached  geometrical  or  conventional  floral  devices, 
among  which  will  mostly  be  found  small  birds  and  animals.  The  border 

i8i 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


often  consists  of  a large  number  of  stripes^  some  of  which  are  filled  with 
the  common  Persian  motive  of  blossoms  depending  from  a wavy  stem, 
Another  favourite  border-stripe  is  the  barber's-pole,  the  successive 
bands  of  which  usually  show  all  the  colours  of  the  rug.  Shiran  rugs 
are,  as  a rule,  very  pleasing  and  desirable  pieces,  but  they  nearly  always 
have  the  slight  disadvantage  of  not  lying  quite  flat  on  the  floor.  A good 
many  saddle-bags  come  from  Shira:?,  and  some  of  them  are  exquisitely 
woven.  In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  there  is  a small  saddle-bag 
with  the  cone  pattern  on  a yellow  ground,  so  finely  knotted  that  there 
are  over  six  hundred  knots  to  the  square  inch. 

A very  similar  group  of  rugs  coming  from  the  east  of  Shira2;  is  called 
Niris  (the  name  of  a salt-lake  in  the  district)  or  alternatively  Laristan. 
They  have  the  Ghiordes  knot  and  a warp  on  two  levels  more  or  less  distinct. 
They  favour  the  all-over  cone  pattern  rather  than  the  central  panel,  and 
the  cones  are  often  elaborately  drawn  and  large  rather  than  small  and 
angular.  Sometimes  the  field  has  a small  lattice  pattern,  or  a diaper 
of  small  devices  arranged  so  as  to  have  a pronounced  striped  effect. 

Shiraz  and  Niris  rugs  are  frequently  called  Mecca,  for  the  reason, 
so  it  is  said,  that  large  numbers  of  them  are  taken  to  and  left  at  Mecca 
by  pilgrims. 

Illustrations  of  the  principal  types  of  Persian  rugs  will  be  found 
on  Plates  147  to  175. 

Plates  147  and  148.  Karadagh  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Feraghan,  Kara- 
bagh,  ShiraZt  and  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  100  knots 
to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  2^  ft.  X 5 ft.,  4J  ft.  X 6|-  ft. 

and  5 ft.  X 10  ft.  They  are  pliable  and  soft  to  the  touch,  and  have  a 

short  and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  wine-red  and 
black. 

Plate  149.  Karadagh  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Feraghan,  Karabagh, 
ShiraZ/  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  50  to  100  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  2I  ft.  X 5 ft.,  4 ft.  X 6|  ft.  and  5 ft.  X 

10  ft.  They  are  pliable  and  soft  to  the  touch,  and  have  a short  but 

lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  blue,  red  and  white. 

Plate  150.  Karadagh  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Feraghan,  Karabagh, 
Shiraz,  and  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  80  to  100  knots  to  the 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  ft.  X 5 ft.;^  4J  ft.  X 6^  ft.  and  5 ft. 
X 10  ft.  They  are  pliable  and  soft  to  the  touchy  and  have  a short 
and  not  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  blue,  red  and  green. 

Plate  151.  Tabriz  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  simply  as  Persian. 
They  have  from  200  to  260  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes 
are  8 ft.  X ii|  ft.,  10  ft.  X 13  ft.  and  ft.  x 15  ft.  The  chief  colours 
are  red,  blue  and  green,  and  the  general  scheme  of  colour  is  soft  and 
harmonious.  They  are  among  the  most  perfectly  made  of  modern 
carpets.  The  complicated  mass  of  floral  scrolls  is  typical. 

Plate  152.  Gorevan  or  Yoraghan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  simply  as  Persian. 
They  have  from  30  to  40  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  size  is 
about  io|  ft.  X 15  ft.  They  are  very  harsh  to  the  touch  and  have  a 
thick,  long  and  dull-looking  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  chocolate-red, 
blue  and  white.  The  characteristic  angular  drawing  of  the  detail,  as 
well  as  the  heavy  massing  of  the  colour,  are  well  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Plate  153.  Hahadan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Camel-hair,  or 
simply  as  Persian  carpets.  They  have  from  30  to  40  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  The  usual  size  is  4I  ft.  x 15  ft.  They  are  harsh  to  the  touch  and 
have  a very  thick  and  long  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  the  brown  of 
camel-hair,  red  and  blue. 

Plate  154.  Hamadan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Kirman,  or  simply 
as  Persian.  They  have  from  30  to  40  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
usual  sizes  are  4 ft.  X iij  ft.  and  6|  ft.  x i6|  ft.  They  are  somewhat 
harsh  to  the  touch  and  have  a fairly  long  and  lustrous  pile.  The  chief 
colours  are  the  brown  of  camel-hair,  red  and  blue.  The  ground  of 
this  specimen  has  a more  elaborate  pattern  than  usual,  and  there  is 
little  doubt  that  the  rug  had  once  an  outer  edging  of  camel-hair. 

Plate  155.  Feraghan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  simply  as  Persian. 
They  have  from  65  to  130  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes 
are  8 ft.  X ii|-  ft.,  10  ft.  X 13  ft.  and  ii|  ft.  X 15  ft.  Antique  pieces 
are  generally  about  4 ft.  x 10  ft.  The  more  recent  pieces  have  a fairly 

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HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


shorty  but  the  older  ones  a long  pile.  The  illustration  shows  a typical 
Feraghan  with  the  usual  Herati  pattern. 

Plates  156  and  157.  Saraband  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Feraghan,  Shiraz, 
Mecca,  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  100  to  160  knots  to 
the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  2^  ft.  X 4 ft.,  4 ft.  X 8|  ft.  and 
5^  ft.  X 6|  ft.  They  have  a fairly  short  and  rather  lustrous  pile.  The 
chief  colours  are  dark  blue,  red  and  green.  The  first  specimen  illustrated 
has  a pattern  much  like  a Feraghan  with  the  cone-diaper  substituted 
for  the  Herati  or  similar  pattern.  Neither  shows  the  most  typical  Saraband 
border-stripe  of  cone-devices  depending  from  every  bend  of  a wavy 
stem. 

Plate  158.  Jushaghan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Ispahan,  Shah- 
Abbas,  or  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  100  to  160  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  The  usual  size  is  about  6 1 ft.  x 13  ft.  They  have  a soft 
and  lustrous  pile  of  medium  length.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  blue, 
red  and  yellow.  The  pattern,  which  is  typical  of  Jushaghans,  is  obviously 
descended  from  the  well-known  design  of  palmettes,  blossoms  and  cloud- 
bands  which  is  seen  so  often  in  Persian  rugs  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries. 

Plate  159.  Saruk  or  Kashan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  simply  as  Persian. 
They  have  from  160  to  225  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes 
are  6 ft.  x 10  ft.,  10  ft.  X 13  ft.  and  ft.  x 18  ft.  They  have  a 
short,  close  and  very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  copper-red, 
blue  and  green. 

Plate  160.  Persian  Silk  Carpet  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum). 

6 ft.  5 in.  X 4 ft.  5 in. 

Warp  : White  silk.  On  two  levels.  29  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Blue  cotton.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Silk.  Sehna.  21  to  i inch.  300  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours : Eight.  White  (field) : light  green  (border) : purple : 
black  : blue  : yellow  : red  : magenta. 

Plates  161  and  162.  Muskabad  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  simply  as  Persian. 
They  have  from  40  to  45  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


lo  ft.  X 13  ft.  and  iij  ft.  x 15  ft.  They  have  a rather  lustrous  pile 
of  medium  length.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  blue,  red  and  white. 

Plates  163,  164A,  b,  165,  167B.  Sehna  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Kirman,  or  simply 
as  Persian.  They  have  about  200  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  size 
is  nearly  always  about  5I  ft.  X 8 ft.  They  are  very  thin  and  have  a 
close  pile,  rather  rough  to  the  touch.  The  chief  colours  are  blue,  red  and 
white.  There  are  no  better  carpets  than  these  in  point  of  technique  and 
delicacy  of  drawing,  and  their  price  is  high,  but  not  when  allowance  is 
made  for  the  very  close  knotting. 

Plate  166.  Kurdistan  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Iran,  Mosul, 
Hamadan,  and  simply  as  Persian.  They  have  from  40  to  65  knots  to 
the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are  3I  ft.  x 8 ft.  and  5^  ft.  x 13  ft. 
The  chief  colours  are  red,  blue  and  white.  They  are  very  thick  and 
have  a coarse  pile,  which  is  lustrous  in  the  older  specimens  but  less  so  in 
the  modern  ones. 

Plates  167A  and  168.  Khorassan  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  simply  as  Persian. 
They  have  from  90  to  no  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are 
10  ft.  X 13  ft.,  II  ft.  X 18  ft.  and  14  ft.  X 20  ft.  Smaller  carpets  are 
rare.  They  are  soft  to  the  touch,  and  have  a lustrous  pile  of  medium 
length.  The  chief  colours  are  rose-red,  blue,  white  and  green. 

Plates  i6g,  170,  171,  172.  Kirman  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Tabriz,  or  simply 
as  Persian.  They  have  from  200  to  260  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
usual  sizes  are  8 ft.  x ii|  ft.,  10  ft.  x 13  ft.,  ii^ft.  x 15  ft.,  ii  ft.  x 21  ft. 
and  even  larger.  They  are  thin  and  have  a short  and  not  very  lustrous 
pile.  The  chief  colours  are  red,  blue-green  and  white. 

Plates  173,  174,  175B.  Shiraz  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Mecca,  or  simply 
as  Persian.  They  have  from  45  to  100  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The 
usual  sizes  are  4^  ft.  X 6|  ft.  and  5^  ft.  X 11^  ft.  They  have  a rather 
loose  texture  and  are  soft  to  the  touch.  The  pile  is  very  lustrous  and 
of  medium  length.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  blue,  red  and  white.  No. 
174  has  the  triple  medallion  and  shaped  field  that  is  so  common  in  Shirazis, 

185 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 

and  No,  175B  has  the  other  characteristic  pattern  of  small  angularly  drawn 
cones. 

Plate  176.  Persian  Kilim  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).  6 ft.  x 
4 ft.  6 in. 

Warp  : Three-ply  white  wool.  17  to  i inch. 

Weft : Two-ply  wool.  About  96  shoots  to  i inch. 

Colours : Eight.  Dark  blue  (field)  : white  (central  medallion) : 
red : light  blue  (ist  and  3rd  borders)  : light  red  : green : 
yellow  (2nd  border)  : brown. 

(d)  Central  Asiatic 

The  vast  and  wild  region  which  lies  between  Persia  and  China  is 
sparsely  inhabited  by  fierce  and  uncultured  nomadic  tribes,  and  yet  it 
produces  carpets  which  are  beautifully  made  and  of  great  artistic 
interest.  A great  part  of  this  region  falls  within  the  Russian  political 
sphere,  and  as  a consequence  most  of  the  first  rugs  to  leave  were  exported 
by  way  of  Russia.  The  carpets  made  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  region 
under  consideration  show  strong  Chinese  influence,  but  all  the  others 
have  a resemblance  to  each  other  that  is  very  remarkable  when  it  is 
considered  how  many  different  and  antagonistic  tribes  are  engaged  in 
their  production  and  what  great  distances  separate  the  boundaries  of 
the  region. 

The  carpets  of  Western  Turkestan  are  made  almost  entirely  of  wool 
which  is  of  very  good  quality.  Both  warp  and  weft  are  commonly  white, 
or  at  least  not  dyed,  and  the  weft  crosses  twice  after  each  row  of  knots. 
The  Sehna  knot  is  generally  used,  though  there  are  a few  exceptions. 
The  knotting  is  never  very  coarse  and  often  is  remarkably  fine,  and  the 
counting  of  the  knots  in  making  the  pattern  is  done  at  least  as  carefully 
as  anywhere  else.  It  is  true  that  the  style  of  pattern  adopted  almost 
necessitates  careful  weaving,  for  any  serious  miscalculation  would  be 
very  apparent;  but  even  then  it  is  remarkable  that  nomadic  people  on 
the  most  primitive  looms  should  produce  such  very  accurate  work. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  texture  is  that  the  knots  are  considerably 
smaller  in  the  direction  of  the  warp  than  in  the  direction  of  the  weft. 
In  fact  the  small  rectangle  occupied  by  each  knot  is  about  twice  as  wide 
as  it  is  high. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  these  rugs  is  their  colouring, 
which  is  quite  unlike  that  of  any  other  class.  The  colours  are  almost 

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CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


invariably  deep  and  sombre,  and  when  bright  colours  are  used  they 
occur  only  in  very  minute  quantities.  Red  is  by  far  the  commonest 
colour,  but  it  is  never  brighter  than  a deep  brick  tint,  and  is  more  often 
a deep  wine-red  or  a brown-  or  purple-red.  Dark  blue  is  the  next  most 
common  colour,  and  there  is  a fair  amount  of  white,  which  is  often  rather 
conspicuous.  Black,  green,  blue  and  brown  are  sometimes  used  in 
smaller  quantities,  while  very  little  of  other  colours  is  seen. 

The  designs  are  on  the  whole  more  geometrical  even  than  those 
of  Caucasian  rugs.  Floral  devices  do  occur,  but,  with  a few  exceptions, 
they  are  so  highly  conventionali2;ed  as  to  be  almost  unrecognizable. 
Two  types  of  design  are  so  widely  spread  through  the  different  groups 
of  rugs  that  they  must  be  mentioned  here.  In  one  type  the  field  is  covered 
with  a repeating  pattern  of  octagons,  regularly  arranged  in  rows  and 
columns ; the  octagons  are  considerably  flattened,  on  account  of  the 
unusual  proportions  of  each  knot  in  the  texture.  In  the  other  type  the 
field  is  divided  by  two  crossing  bands  into  four  panels  approximately 
equal  and  square.  These  latter  pieces  are  really  portieres. 

There  are  many  borders  and  smaller  details  of  the  designs  which 
are  exclusively  found  in  Central  Asiatic  carpets,  and  several  of  these 
will  be  seen  illustrated  on  Plates  200  and  201, 

Central  Asiatic  carpets  are  very  rarely  of  large  dimensions,  and 
only  a small  proportion  of  them  are  rugs.  The  majority  of  pieces  are 
saddle-bags,  tent-bags,  mats  or  tent-bands,  and  even  some  of  the  larger 
pieces,  which  look  like  rugs,  were  really  intended  for  hanging  across 
the  doorway  of  a tent.  As  all  carpets  of  this  class  were  meant  for  use 
rather  than  show,  and,  what  is  more,  for  the  use  of  nomads,  it  is  not 
remarkable  that  very  old  pieces  are  quite  unknown,  A certain  number 
may  be  found  going  back  to  the  eighteenth  century,  but  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  any  pieces  of  an  earlier  date  still  exist.  Carpets  of  a 
moderate  age  are  invariably  sound  in  colour  and  weaving,  and  even 
modern  ones  are  nearly  always  well  woven,  though  they  have  suffered 
in  common  with  most  new  carpets  from  unsound  dyes.  Almost  without 
exception  they  wear  well,  and  if  the  dyes  are  sound  they  are  very  desirable 
carpets. 

Most  of  the  rugs  made  in  Western  Turkestan  are  called  Bokhara., 
though  very  few  are  made  there.  It  is  best  as  far  as  practicable  to  classify 
the  rugs  according  to  the  tribe  that  made  them,  though  there  are  great 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  a strict  nomenclature  and  much  confusion  on 
the  subject.  The  rugs  made  by  the  Salor  tribes  (known  frequently 

187 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


as  Royal  Bokhara)  have  a pattern  of  repeated  octagons  of  the  kind 
illustrated  on  Plate  175A.  In  the  interspaces  between  the  octagons  there 
are  various  figures  which  are  roughly  diamond-shaped  in  contour*  Salor 
rugs  are  not  woven  now  and  have  become  very  rare^  but  their  patterns 
have  been  adopted  by  other  tribes. 

The  majority  of  Turcoman  rugs  are  made  by  the  Tekke  tribes  whose 
pieces  are  generally  coarser  than  those  already  mentioned.  The  warp^ 
which  is  of  medium  wool  or  goat-hair^  lies  on  two  levels  slightly  separ- 
ated. There  is  mostly  a three-cord  selvedge  and  the  ends  have  a long, 
coloured  web  and  a long  fringe.  The  border  shown  on  Plate  201  (27) 
is  almost  invariably  found.  The  chief  colour  is  red,  which  ranges  from 
a brick-red  to  a purple-red. 

The  rugs  of  the  Pinde  tribes  are  darker  in  tone  than  the  last.  The 
ground  is  of  a deep  brown-red  or  purple-red,  sometimes  approaching  a 
purple-black,  and  the  pattern  stands  out  rather  strongly  in  white  lines. 

All  Katchli  pattern  rugs  are  often  erroneously  called  prayer-rugs. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Khiva  rugs  are  made  which  much  resemble 
those  called  Bokhara,  but  tend  to  be  coarser  and  generally  more  barbaric 
in  appearance.  Animals  and  geometrical  forms  rather  like  the  Caucasian 
are  introduced. 

The  rugs  woven  by  the  Yomud  tribes  form  a group  more  easy  to 
recognize  than  many  of  the  others.  They  have  a rather  coarse  warp 
which  tends  to  lie  on  two  levels.  The  Ghiordes  knot  is  commoner 
than  the  Sehna,  whereas  the  latter  is  almost  invariably  found  in  other 
Central  Asiatic  rugs.  They  have  not  the  flattened  octagons,  but  mostly 
have  patterns  constructed  with  diamond-shaped  latch-hooked  figures 
often  of  two  types  or  at  least  coloured  in  two  ways.  Some  of  their  border- 
stripes  are  characteristic  (Plate  201  (i,  7,  13,  18,  22,  23) ).  The  Yomud 
tent-bags  are  not  as  a rule  rectangular,  but  are  pointed  at  the  top  and 
are  mostly  furnished  with  long  fringes  and  cords  at  the  corners.  The 
colour-scheme  mostly  includes  a purple-brown  and  a rich  red  as  well 
as  a fair  amount  of  rather  conspicuous  white.  A great  peculiarity  of 
knotting  is  seen  in  some  Yomud  carpets,  but  perhaps  in  no  other  kind. 
Its  nature  and  the  reason  for  it  will  require  a little  explanation.  The 
simplest  diagonal  contour  that  can  occur  in  a knotted  pattern  is  formed 
by  carrying  one  of  the  two  colours  concerned  one  knot  farther  in  each 
successive  row,  and  if  the  knots  are  approximately  square  this  makes 
an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  In  Central  Asiatic  carpets  the  knots  are 
much  wider  than  they  are  high,  so  a diagonal  line  formed  as  above  will 

188 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


be  much  less  steep.  If  an  angle  of  45  degrees  is  wanted  it  can  be  obtained 
by  carrying  one  colour  one  knot  further  in  every  second  row,  but  the  line 
will  not  be  a smooth  one.  The  Yomuds  get  out  of  the  difficulty  by 
breaking  up  the  pairs  of  warps  on  which  most  of  the  knots  are  tied 
and  by  tying  in  the  new  row  midway  between  those  of  the  previous  row. 
The  knots  are  thus  arranged  like  the  bricks  in  a half- brick  wall,  and  a 
fairly  smooth  diagonal  line  of  about  45  degrees  will  result.  This  is  only 
done  where  necessary  in  the  pattern,  and  the  usual  arrangement  is  restored 
by  tying  a knot  on  three  warps  at  each  end  of  a row  of  abnormally-placed 
knots. 

Rugs  called  Afghan  are  made  by  wandering  tribes  partly  in  Afghan- 
istan but  also  outside  its  boundaries.  They  are  coarsely-woven  and 
have  broad  webs  at  each  end  divided  into  several  coloured  bands,  and 
usually  long  fringes.  The  pattern  mostly  consists  of  large  repeated 
octagons  which  almost  touch  each  other  in  the  vertical  direction,  and 
these  octagons  mostly  contain  trifoliate  forms  (Plate  201  (20) ).  The 
colours  are  chiefly  dark  red  and  brown,  and  the  rugs  have  a reddish-tawny 
appearance. 

The  rugs  called  Beshire,  from  a district  to  the  west  of  Khiva, 
have  a coarse  or  medium  texture,  and  usually  have  wide  striped  webs 
at  the  ends,  and  fringes.  The  colours  are  mostly  red  and  brown  with 
a fair  amount  of  blue.  The  patterns  are  more  floral  than  those  of  other 
Central  Asiatic  rugs,  and  often  are  reminiscent  of  Persian  designs.  Trellis 
patterns  are  not  uncommon,  and  sometimes  a curious  pattern  consisting 
of  repeated  scrolls  having  a vermiculated  appearance  are  seen  (Plate 
189).  The  prayer-rugs  have  a simple  pointed  arch  occupying  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  rug  (Plate  190).  Beshire  rugs  have  only  been  exported 
in  fairly  recent  times. 

A well-marked  type  of  rugs  akin  to  the  Turcoman  is  called 
Beluchistan  or  Beluchi,  and  some  may  actually  be  made  there  by 
wandering  tribes ; but  probably  the  majority  are  made  by  similar  tribes 
further  to  the  north.  The  rugs  are  very  dark  and  sombre,  the  prevalent 
colours  being  dark  blue,  dark  red  and  black ; invariably,  however,  there 
are  small  areas  of  white  which  are  very  conspicuous,  and  sometimes 
there  is  a good  deal  of  natural  camel-hair.  On  account  of  the  blue, 
which  is  unusual  in  Central  Asiatic  rugs,  they  are  sometimes  called  Blue 
Bokhara.  The  designs  are  different  from  the  Turcoman  rugs.  They 
are  to  some  extent  geometrical,  but  they  also  have  conventional  tree-forms 
of  a peculiar  kind,  and  also  copy  some  of  the  simpler  floral  patterns  of 

189 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


Persia.  The  prayer-rugs  of  this  group  are  fairly  numerous  and  have 
a simple  rectangular  arch.  The  rugs  are  thick  and  well  woven,  and 
the  pile  is  rather  long  and  mostly  very  lustrous.  They  wear  well,  and 
in  spite  of  their  dark  colour  are  very  attractive. 

Quite  different  from  the  Central  Asiatic  rugs  already  described  are 
those  from  Eastern  or  Chinese  Turkestan.  They  have  usually  a cotton 
warp  on  two  levels  and  a cotton  weft.  The  Sehna  knot  is  used,  and  the 
texture  is  coarse  and  rather  loose  with  from  about  40  to  65  knots  to  the 
square  inch.  These  rugs  usually  have  a rich  yellow  and  brown  appearance, 
and  are  so  closely  connected  with  the  Chinese  carpets  in  point  of  design 
that  they  are  most  conveniently  classed  with  them  A further  description 
will  be  found  in  Part  I,  Chapter  VI  (6). 

Plates  175A,  and  177  to  193  illustrate  the  principal  types  of  Central 
Asiatic  rugs  apart  from  those  of  Eastern  Turkestan. 

Plate  175A.  Turcoman  Carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Bokhara.  They 
have  from  130  to  200  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  skes  are 
5I  ft.  X 10  ft.,  5 ft.  X 8 ft.,  as  well  as  i X 2 ft.,  and  2X4  ft.,  in 
which  case  they  are  sometimes  known  as  Yastik.  They  are  closely  knotted 
and  have  a short  and  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  red-brown 
with  smaller  quantities  of  dark  blue  and  white. 

Plates  177.  Turcoman  Strips  or  Tent-Bands. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Bokhara  or  Khiva. 
These  border-like  pieces  are  used  as  decorations,  chiefly  round  the  walls 
of  tents  where  the  sides  join  the  roof.  The  ground  is  of  plain  weaving 
and  the  pattern  is  knotted  in  the  usual  way.  The  usual  si2;e  is  6 ins.  X 
10  ft.,  though  some  are  much  larger.  The  ground  is  white,  or  the  natural 
colour  of  the  wool,  and  the  pattern  is  chiefly  in  dark  purple,  blue  and 
white. 

Plates  178  and  179.  Turcoman  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Bokhara.  They 
have  from  130  to  200  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  size  is 
2i  ft.  X 5 ft.  They  are  closely  knotted  and  have  a short  and  lustrous 
pile.  The  chief  colours  are  red-brown,  dark  blue,  and  white. 

Plates  180,  181,  and  182.  Turcoman  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Bokhara,  Khiva, 
Tekke,  and  Kisiliyak.  They  have  from  105  to  106  knots  to  the  square 

190 


CARPETS  IN  THE  MARKET : GROUPING— IDENTIFICATION 


inch.  The  usual  size  is  ft.  X ft.  They  are  closely  knotted  and 
have  a short  and  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  red-brown, 
dark  blue,  white  and  yellow ; the  white  sometimes  being  of  cotton. 

Plates  183,  184,  185.  Turcoman  Yomud  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Bokhara.  They 
have  from  130  to  200  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  si2;e  is  5 ft.  X 
10  ft.  They  are  closely  knotted  and  have  a short  but  frequently  very 
lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  purple,  blue  and  white. 

Plates  i86a,  and  187.  Afghan  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  known  in  the  trade  also  as  Bokhara.  They  . 
have  from  45  to  70  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  sizes  are 
4k  ft*  X 7 ft.  and  6 ft.  X 9 ft.  They  usually  have  a long  pile  which  is 
very  lustrous  in  the  better  pieces.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  red- 
brown,  dark  blue,  white  and  yellow. 

Plate  i86b.  Turcoman  Camel  Bag  (Victoria  and  Albert  Museum). 

2 ft.  X 4 ft.  4 ins. 

Warp  : White  wool.  On  one  level.  19  to  i inch. 

Weft : Red  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool.  Sehna.  20  to  i inch.  200  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours  : Seven.  Purple-red  (field,  3rd  border  and  edging) : red 
(2nd  and  4th  borders) : white  : dark  blue  : green-blue  : brown  : 
yellow. 

Plates  188  and  189.  Beshire  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  50  to  100  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  usual  sizes  are  5 ft.  X ft.  and  6|  ft.  x i6|  ft.  The  pile  is 
very  long  and  very  lustrous.  The  chief  colours  are  red-brown  and  dark 
blue,  with  a little  white  and  yellow.  These  carpets  have  only  been  exported 
for  twenty  years  or  so,  and  are  still  not  well  known. 

Plate  190.  Beshire  Prayer-carpet. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  have  from  50  to  100  knots  to  the  square  inch. 
The  size  is  about  3|-  ft.  X 6 ft.  They  have  a long  and  lustrous  pile. 
The  chief  colours  are  red,  brown,  white  and  dark  blue. 

Plates  191,  192 a,  b,  193.  Beluchistan  Carpets. 

Carpets  of  this  kind  are  also  known  in  the  trade  as  Afghan  and  Bokhara. 
They  have  from  50  to  65  knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  usual  size  is 
about  5 ft.  X 8 ft. ; large  pieces  being  very  rare.  They  have  a long  and 

191 


HAND-WOVEN  CARPETS 


very  lustrous  pile.  The  chief  colours  are  dark  blue^  brown,  and  an 
intense  white, 

Plate  192c,  Beluchistan  Prayer- carpet,  5 ft,  3 ins,  x 2 ft,  7 ins. 
Warp  : White  wool.  On  one  level,  15  to  i inch. 

Weft  : Black  wool.  Two  shoots  after  each  row  of  knots. 

Knots  : Wool,  Sehna,  1 1 to  i inch,  80  to  the  square  inch. 
Colours : Six,  Camel-hair  (field) : crimson-red : black  (border) : 
red  : dark  blue  : white. 


192 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Bode,  Wilhelm  von. — ^Vorderasiastische  Knupfteppiche  aus  alterer  Zeit.  92 
{i  chromo)  'process  Ulus.  (10  X 7.)  Leipzig  : H.  Seemann  Nachfolger.  1901. 

Bogoloubov,  Andreya  Andreevich. — Tapis  de  TAsie  centrale,  faisant  partie  de  la 
collection  reunie  par  A.B.  (Text  also  in  Russian.)  52  pp.  36  chromo-lithogr., 

7 phototype  plates  and  2 maps.  (28  X 20.)  St.  Petersbourg.  1908. 

DUMONTHIER,  Ernest.- — Recueil  de  dessins  de  tapis  et  de  tapisseries  d ’ameublement 
du  mobilier  de  la  Couronne.  8 pp.  48  {some  col.)  phototype  plates.  (25  X 18.) 
Paris  : Librairie  generale  de  1’ Architecture  et  des  Arts  decoratifs.  1912. 

GrOTE-Hasenbalg,  Werner. — Der  Orientteppich,  seine  Geschichte  und  seine  Kultur. 
Process  Ulus,  incl,  137  chromo,  and  map.  3 vols.  (10  X 10.)  Berlin  : Scara- 
baeus-Verlag.  1922. 

Hackmack,  Adolf.  Der  Chinesische  Teppich.  44  pp.  Process  Ulus.  incl.  25 
(i  chromo)  plates,  and  map.  (9  X 6.)  L.  Friederichsen  and  Co.  Hamburg. 
1921. 

Hawley,  Walter  A. — Oriental  rugs,  antique  and  modern.  Process  Ulus.,  some 
chromo  and  maps,  (ii  X 8.)  New  York  : John  Lane  Co.  1913. 

Hendley,  Thomas  Holbein,  Col. — Asian  carpets  : i6th  and  17th  century  designs 

from  the  Jaipur  palaces.  22  pp.  146  (138  chromo)  lithogr.,  incl.  frontispiece 
and  1 phototype.  (20  X 14.)  London  : W.  Griggs.  1905. 

Holt,  Rosa  Belle. — Rugs,  Oriental  and  Occidental,  antique  and  modern.  A hand- 
book for  ready  reference.  31  (12  chromo)  process  Ulus,  (ii  X 8.)  Chicago  : 
A.  C.  McClurg  and  Co.  1901. 

Krygowski,  T. — Polenteppiche  (Polnische  Knupfteppiche).  23  pp.  ii  process 
Ulus.  (In  “ Orientalisches  Archiv,”  II,  70,  106.)  1911-12. 

Lessing,  J. — Orientalische  Teppiche.  12  pp.  13  (12  chromo)  plates  and  i text 
Ulus.  (19  X 13.)  Berlin  : E.  Wasmuth.  1891. 

Lessing,  Julius. — Alt-Orientalische  Teppichmuster,  nach  Bildern  und  Originalen 
des  XV-XVI  Jahrhunderts.  Herausgegeben  mit  Unterstiitzung  des  Kdnigl. 
Preussischen  Ministeriums  fiir  Handel,  Gewerbe  und  offentliche  Arbeiten.  30 
chromo-lithogr.  (20  X 14.)  Berlin  : E.  Wasmuth.  1877. 

English  translation.  Ancient  Oriental  carpets,  etc.  28  pp.  30  chromo- 
lithogr.  (20  X 14.)  London  : H.  Sotheran.  1879. 

Lewis,  G.  Griffin. — The  practical  book  of  Oriental  rugs.  2nd  edition.  Process 
Ulus.,  some  chromo  and  map  (9  X 7.)  Philadelphia  : J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 

1913- 


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Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  Guide  to  the  Collection  of  Carpets.  49  process 
Ulus.  (lo  X 6.)  London  : H.M.  Stationery  Office.  1920. 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  Notes  on  Carpet  Knotting  and  Weaving.  13 
process  Ulus.  (8  X 5>)  London  : H.M.  Stationery  Office.  1920. 

Martin,  F.  R. — A history  of  Oriental  carpets  before  1800.  Plates  and  illustrations 
in  the  text,  many  chromo.  (26  X 20.)  Vienna  : I.  R.  Court  and  State  Printing 
Office.  1908. 

Mumford,  John  Kimberly. — Oriental  rugs.  33  (i6  chromo)  plates,  2 maps,  and 
illustrations  in  the  text,  (ii  X 8.)  London  : Sampson  Low,  Marston,  and  Co. 
1901. 

Mumford,  John  Kimberly. — The  Yerkes  collection  of  Oriental  carpets.  62  pp. 
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194 


INDEX 


Abul  Fazl  on  carpet-making  in  India,  37 

Adam,  Robert  ; encouragement  by,  of  carpet-making, 
81 

Afghan  carpets,  189,  191 

Akbar,  Emperor  of  India  : encouragement  of  carpet- 
making, 37-40 

Anatolian  carpets,  1 51-153,  155,  158,  159,  160 
Saph  prayer-carpets,  158 
Kilim  prayer-carpets,  159 

Ardabil  carpet  : description  of,  etc.,  17-19,  30,  43,  104 

Ardelan  carpets,  177.  See  also  the  following  names  : 
Bijar 
Karaje 
Kermanshah 
Kurdistan 
Lule 
Mosul 
Sarakhs 
Sehna 

Armenia  : examples  of  Armenian  carpets  in  Italy,  15 

Arts,  Society  of  : premiums  offered  by,  for  carpet- 
making in  1756,  80 

Axminster  ; carpet-making  in  eighteenth  century,  82 

Azerbaijan  carpets,  174-175.  See  also  the  following 
names  : 

Bakshi 

Gorevan  (or  Yoraghan) 

Herez 

Karadagh 

Serapi 

Tabriz 


Bakshi  carpets,  175 
Baku  carpets,  164,  169,  170 

Bardini,  Signor  Stefano  : Persian  carpet  owned  by,  8, 
27 

Bell,  Robert  : Master  of  Girdlers’  Company,  40 
Beluchistan  or  Beluchi  carpets,  189,  191,  192  ; price 
of,  143 

Bergama  rugs,  155,  159 
Beshire  carpets,  189,  191 
Bijar  carpets,  178 
Lule,  178 
Sarakhs,  178 

Birdwood,  Sir  George  ; on  origin  of  pile-carpets,  6 
Bode,  Dr.  von  : Comments  on  Turkish  carpet,  46 
Bokhara,  187,  190  ; price  of,  143,  144 
Royal  Bokhara,  188 
Border  designs,  125,  126-7 

Brighton  Pavilion  : Axminster  carpets  supplied  to,  in 
1823,  82 

Buccleuch,  Duke  of  : Persian  and  Indian  carpets 

owned  by,  27,  32,  41 

Buerkel,  Dr.  L.  von  : Spanish  carpet  owned  by,  70] 


Camel-hair  carpets,  183 

Carlisle,  Earl  of  : Morris  carpet  made  for,  83 

Caucasus,  The  : 

Baku  rugs,  164,  169,  170 
Daghestan  carpets.  See  that  name 
[Designs  of  carpets,  162 


Caucasus,  The  {contd.) : 

Historical  records  of  carpet-making,  58-60,  161 

Kilim  rugs.  See  that  name 

Kutais  rugs,  165 

Manufacturing  methods,  161 

Price  of  carpets,  143 

Shirvan.  See  that  name 

Shusha  carpets,  165 

Soumak  carpets,  165,  172 

Tcherkess  (or  Circassian)  rugs,  165 

Tiflis  rugs,  165 

Central  Asiatic  carpets,  186-192  ; price  of,  144.  See 
also  the  following  names  : 

Afghan 

Beluchistan  or  Beluchi 

Beshire 

Bokhara 

Khiva 

Kisiliyak 

Pinde 

Tekke 

Turcoman  Saddle  Bag 
Yomud 

Chichi  rugs,  164,  169 
China  : 

Chinese  design  in  Persia  and  Western  Asia,  13 
Croft-Lyons  carpet,  66,  110 
Cunliffe  carpet,  109 
Price  of  carpets,  143 
Records  of  carpet-making,  62 
Stockholm  Museum  carpet,  63 
Chinese  Turkestan  : Carpet  types,  etc.,  65-67,  190 
Tientsin  carpet,  66 

Chosroes  I : description  of  carpet  made  for,  10,  ii,  12, 
14,  29 

Circassian  (Tcherkess)  rugs,  165 

Clam-Gallas,  Count  : Persian  carpet  owned  by,  25 

Clarke,  Sir  C.  Purdon  : on  Indian  carpets,  38 

Cleansing  of  carpets,  146 

Cone  (or  crown-jewel)  motive,  131 

Convent  of  Sta  Clara,  Valencia  : carpets  owned  by,  69 

Cracow  Cathedral  : Persian  carpet  in,  8,  23 

Croft-Lyons,  Colonel  : Chinese  carpet  owned  by,  66,  no 

Cunliffe,  Lady  : Chinese  carpet  owned  by,  109 

Czartoryski,  Prince  : carpet  owned  by,  30 


Daghestan  carpets,  163,  166.  See  also  the  following 
names  ; 

Derbend 

Genghis 

Kabistan 

Karabagh 

Kazak 

Kenguerlu 

Kuba 

Mosul 

Demirdji  carpets,  150 
Denmark  : Coronation  carpet,  32 
Derbend  carpets,  163,  167,  169 

Design  of  carpets,  123-132,  152,  187.  See  also  names 
of  countries 
Animals,  46 


195 


INDEX 


Designs  of  Carpets  {eontd.) : 

Figures,  26 

Flowers  and  plants,  18,  24,  34,  46,  152 

Heraldry,  45  {3),  68,  72 

Hunting,  16,  26,  32,  41 

Love  stories,  28 

Nautical,  28,  29 

Timur  device,  50 

Dilke,  Sir  Charles  : Spanish  carpet  presented  to  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  71 
Dupont,  Pierre  : originator  of  carpet-making  process, 
73 

Dye-stuffs  and  dyeing,  118-122,  135-136,  140 


England  : 

Hulse  carpet,  79,  114 
Inscription  on  early  English  carpet,  79 
Parisot’s  factory  : the  first  in  England,  80 
“ Turkey  work,”  79 

Use  of  carpets  and  carpet-making  in  England,  75-84 


Farsistan  (or  Kashkai)  carpets,  181 
Niris  (or  Laristan),  182 
Mecca,  182 

Feraghan  carpets,  175,  182,  183,  184  ; price  of,  143,  144 
Field  designs,  127-132 

Figdor,  Dr.  A.  : early  Persian  carpet  owned  by,  1 1 
Finland  : 

Carpet-making  in,  72 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  carpet,  73,  113 
Fortier,  Jehan  : originator  of  carpet-making  process, 
73 

France  : 

Dupont,  Pierre  : originator  of  carpet-making  pro- 
cess, 73 

Early  records  of  carpet-making,  73 
Fortier,  Jehan  : originator  of  carpet-making  process, 
73 

Savonnerie  factory  : carpets  made  for  Louis  XIV,  73  ; 
union  of,  with  the  Gobelins  factory,  etc.,  73-74 
Fraudulent  carpets,  138-142 
Fremlin  carpet  in  India,  38 


Garland,  Mr.  C.  T.  : Persian  carpet  owned  by,  27 
Genghis  carpets,  165,  166,  167,  168,  169,  170,  171 
Ghiordes  carpets,  150,  153  ; prayer-carpets,  54,  156  ; 

value  of,  144 
Ghiordes  knot,  93-95 

Girdlers’  Company  : Indian  carpet  owned  by,  38,  39-40, 
80,  106 

Gobelins  factory,  74 

Gorevan  (or  Yoraghan)  carpets,  174,  183 
Grouping  and  identification  of  carpets  in  the  market, 
149-192  * 

Guli  Hinnai  pattern,  128 


Hamadan  carpets,  175,  183,  185 

Harris,  Mr.  Lionel  : Indian  and  Spanish  carpets  owned 
by,  69,  69  (i ),  106 

Hendley,  Colonel  T.  H.,  C.I.E.  : authority  on  Indian 
carpets,  38 

Herat  carpets,  35,  39,  180 
Herati  pattern,  128 
Hereke  carpets,  150 
Herez  carpets,  175 

Hulse,  Lady  : early  English  carpet  owned  by,  79,  114 


Ilchester,  Earl  of  : Persian  carpet  owned  by,  20 
India  : 

Buccleuch  carpets,  41 
Carpet-making  in,  37 
Fremlin  carpet,  38 

Girdlers’  Company  carpet,  38,  39-40,  80,  106 


India  {conid.)  : 

Hunting  designs,  41 

Jeuniette  carpet,  40 

Lionel  Harris  carpet,  106 

Nineteenth  century  and  ‘‘  jail  carpets,”  41 

Persian  carpets  and  weavers  supplied  to  India,  ^7,  29 

Roden  carpet,  40 

Salting  Collection  carpet,  39 

Sarre  carpet,  40 

Irak-Ajemi  carpets,  175-177.  See  also  the  following 
names  : 

Feraghan 
Hamadan 
Jushaghan 
Kashan 
Mahal 
Muskabad 
Saraband 
Saruk 
Savalan 
Sultanabad 
Iran  carpets,  185 
Ireland  : carpet-making  in,  83 

Ispahan  : Hall  of  the  Forty  Columns  carpet,  25  ; car- 
pets made  at  Ispahan,  36,  184 
Italy  : Armenian  carpets  in,  15 


“ Jail  carpets  ” in  India,  41 
Jakshibehdir  prayer-carpets,  159 
Jesser,  William  ; carpet  factory  in  1759,  81 
Jeuniette,  M.  : Indian  carpet  in  collection  of,  40 
Jushaghan  carpets,  176,  184 


Kabistan  rugs,  163,  167,  168,  169 

Karabeck,  Dr.  v.  : Description  of  early  Persian  carpet, 
10 

Karabagh  carpets,  165,  166,  167,  170,  171,  182 
Karadagh  carpets,  174,  182 
Karaje  carpets,  179 

Kashan  carpets,  29,  176  ; price  of,  143,  144 
Kashkai  carpets.  See  Farsistan 
Kazak  carpets,  164,  166,  168,  170,  171 
Kenguerlu  rugs,  166 
Kermanshah  carpets,  179 
Khiva  rugs,  188,  190 
Khorassan  carpets,  179,  185 
Herat,  180 
Meshed,  179 

Kilim  rugs  and  prayer-carpets,  159,  165,  166,  186  ; 

price  of,  143.  See  also  Sile  and  Verne  carpets 
Kir-Shehr  rugs  and  prayer-carpets,  155,  158 
Kirman  carpets,  25,  35,  180,  183,  185  ; price  of,  143 
Kis  carpets,  156 
Kisiliyak  carpets,  190 
Koltuk  carpets,  169 

Konia  (Iconium)  ; Oriental  carpets  discovered  in,  by 
Dr.  F.  R.  Martin,  6,  45 
Konia  rugs,  155 
Koula  rugs.  See  Kula 
Kuba  rugs,  163,  167,  168,  169 
Kula  rugs  and  prayer-carpets,  55,  154,  157 
Kunstgewerbe  Museum,  Leipzig  ; Persian,  Spanish,  and 
Turkish  carpets  owned  by,  35,  47,  69 
Kurdistan  carpets,  178,  185  ; price  of,  143,  144 
Kutais  rugs,  165 


Ladik  rugs  and  prayer- carpets,  56,  154,  157,  158 
Lamm,  Mr.  Carl  Robert  ; carpets  owned  by,  12,  14,  24, 

29 

Laristan  carpets.  See  Niris 

Lemberg  Museum  : Polish  carpets  in,  72 

Lesghian  rugs,  163 

Lessing,  Dr.  Julius  : carpets  represented  in  paintings,  44 


196 


INDEX 


Liechtenstein,  Prince  : Turkish  prayer-carpet  owned  by, 
47 

Local  origin  of  early  carpets  : inaccuracy  of  records, 
38  (2) 

Looms  for  weaving  carpets,  88-90 
Louis  XIV  : carpets  made  for,  at  the  Savonnerie  fac- 
tory, 73,  1 13 

Love  stories  depicted  on  Persian  carpets,  28 
Lule  carpets,  178 


McLaren,  Hon.  H.  D.  : Persian  and  Spanish  carpets 
owned  by,  1 1,  71,  1 12 

Madziarski,  John  ; weaving  establishments  of,  30,  31 

Mahal  carpets,  177 

Makri  carpets,  155,  160 

Manufacture  of  carpets.  See  also  Technique 

Caucasian  methods,  161  ; Persian,  173  ; Turkish, 
46,  151  ; Western  Turkestan,  186 
Materials  used,  types,  etc.,  31-36,  161,  173 
Superiority  of  Persian  carpets,  43,  172 
Tapestry  process,  33-34 

Marling,  Sir  Charles  : Kirman  carpet  owned  by,  26  (i) 
Martin,  Dr.  F.  R.  : Oriental  carpets  discovered  by,  in 
Konia,  6,  45  ; Asia  Minor  carpet,  opinion  as  to, 
13  ; Ispahan  carpet,  26 
Materials  used  in  carpets,  114-116 
Mecca  carpets,  168,  169,  170,  182,  184,  185 
Medallion  or  Ushak  carpet,  150 
Melas  carpets,  155,  160 
Meshed  carpets,  179  ; price  of,  143 
Mina  Khani  pattern,  128 
Moghan  carpets,  167 

Moore,  Thomas  : carpets  made  by,  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  81 

Morris,  William  : carpets  made  by,  83 
Mosul  carpets,  167,  178,  185 
Moth,  to  combat,  147 

Mounsey,  Mr.  G.,  carpets  owned  by  : Persian,  36, 

106  ; Turkish,  48,  107,  108,  109  ; prayer-carpet, 
55,  109  ; Oriental,  108,  109 
Mujur  rugs  and  prayer-carpets,  154,  158 
Muskabad  carpets,  177,  184  ; price  of,  143 


Nigde  rugs,  155 

Niris  (or  Laristan)  carpets,  182 

Northumberland,  Duke  of  : early  English  carpet  owned 
by,  1 14 


Oushak  carpets.  See  Ushak 


Paintings  : carpets  represented  in,  23,  44,  48,  68 
Parisot,  Pierre  : first  carpet-maker  in  England,  80 
Passavant,  of  Exeter  : carpets  made  by,  in  1758,  81 
Persia  : 

Ardabil  carpet,  17-19,  30,  43,  104 

Ardelan  carpets.  See  that  name 

Azerbaijan  carpets.  See  that  name 

Bardini  carpet,  8,  27 

Buccleuch  carpet,  27,  32 

Camel-hair  carpets,  183 

Chinese  design  in,  13 

Chosroes  carpet,  10,  ii,  12,  14,  29 

Clam-Gallas  carpet,  25 

Cracow  Cathedral  carpet,  8,  23 

Czartoryski  carpet,  30 

Design  of  carpets,  173 

Farsistan  carpets.  See  that  name 

Figdor  carpet,  11 

Figure  subjects,  26 

Floral  designs,  18,  24,  34 

Garland  carpet,  27 

Gobelins  Museum,  Paris  : Persian  carpet  owned  by, 
20 

Herat  : carpet-making  in,  35,  39 


Persia  (contd.)  : 

Historical  records  of  carpet-making,  8 et  seq. 

Hunting  designs,  16,  26 
Ilchester  carpet,  20,  104 

India  : carpets  and  weavers  supplied  to,  37,  39 

Irak-Ajemi  carpets.  See  that  name 

Ispahan.  See  that  name 

Kashan  : carpets  made  at,  29 

Khorassan  carpets.  See  that  name 

Kirman  carpets,  25,  35,  180 

Kunstgewerbe  Museum  carpet,  35 

Lamm  carpets,  12,  14,  24,  29 

Love  stories  designs,  28 

McLaren  carpets,  ii 

Marling  carpet,  26  (1) 

Materials  used  in  carpets,  etc.,  29,  173 
Miniature  paintings  and  carpet  designs,  23 
Mounsey  carpet,  36,  106 
Nautical  scenes,  28,  29 
Plant  forms,  24 

Poland  : silk  and  gold  carpets  erroneously  attri- 
buted to,  30,  72 
Poldi-Pezzoli  carpet,  28 
Rothschild  carpet,  21 
Salting  carpet  in  silk  and  gold,  9,  21,  22 
SchSnbrunn  carpet,  16,  27,  31 
Schwarzenberg  carpet,  23 
Stieglitz  Museum  carpet,  22 
Superiority  of  Persian  carpets,  43,  172 
“ Turkey  ” carpets  sometimes  made  in  Persia,  44 
Verses  inscribed  on  carpets,  21 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  carpet,  19 
White  grounds,  use  of,  50 
Yezd  : carpet  industry,  29 
Pile-carpets  : origin  of,  etc.,  3-6,  29 
Pinde  carpets,  188 
Poland  : 

Lemberg  Museum  carpets,  72 

Persian  silk  and  gold  carpets  erroneously  attributed 
to,  30,  72 

Poldi-Pezzoli  Museum  : Persian  carpet  in,  28 
Portsmouth,  Earl  of  : Morris  carpet  made  for,  84 
Practical  considerations  : 

Purchase  and  prices,  133-145 
Treatment,  145-148 

Prayer-carpets  : various  types,  etc.,  47,  53-56,  62,  130, 
132,  152,  154,  157,  158,  159,  160,  166,  171,  191,  192 
Prices  of  carpets,  143-145 
Purchase  and  prices  of  carpets,  133-145 


Quedlinburg  : panel  made  by  nuns  of,  5 


Repair  of  carpets,  148 
Robinson,  Vincent  : on  Indian  carpets,  38 
Roden,  Dr.,  of  Frankfurt  : Indian  carpet  owned  by,  40 
Roe,  Sir  Thomas  : on  Indian  carpets,  38 
Rothschild,  Baron  Nathaniel  : verses  inscribed  on 

carpet  owned  by,  21 
Royal  Bokhara  carpets,  188 
Rush  matting,  76 


Salting  collection  : Persian  and  Indian  carpets,  9,  21, 
22,  39 

Saph  prayer- rug,  158 
Saraband  carpets,  175,  184 
Sarakhs  carpets,  178 

Sarre,  Dr.  F.  : Indian  and  Polish  carpets  owned  by,  40, 
72 

Saruk  carpets,  177,  184 
Savalan  carpets,  177 

Savonnerie  factory  : carpets  made  for  Louis  XIV,  73  ; 

union  of,  with  the  Gobelins  factory,  etc.,  73-74,  113 
Schonbrunn  carpet,  16,  27,  31 

Schwarzenberg,  Prince  : Persian  carpet  owned  by,  23 
Scotland  : carpet-making  in,  82 


197 


INDEX 


Sehna  carpets,  177,  185  ; price  of,  143 
Sehna  knot,  93-95 
Serapi  carpets,  175 

Shah-Abbas  carpets,  184;  pattern,  128 
Shiraz  carpets,  182,  184,  185  ; price  of,  143 
Shirvan  carpete,  164.  ^See  also  the  following  names  : 
Baku 
Chichi 
Derbend 
Genghis 
Kabistan 
Kazak 
Koltuk 
Kuba 
Mecca 
Moghan 
Talish 
Tchetcen 
Tzitzi 

Shusha  carpets,  165 
Sile  rugs,  165,  172 
Silk  carpets,  115 
Single-warp  knot,  95-96 

Smyrna  carpets,  149,  150  ; price  of,  143.  See  also  the 
following  names  : 

Demirdji 

Ghiordes 

Hereke 

Sparta 

Ushak  or  Medallion 

Soane  Museum  : collection  of  carpet  designs  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  81 
Soumak  carpets,  165,  172  ; price  of,  143 
Spain  : 

Buerkel  carpet,  70 

Convent  of  Sta  Clara,  Valencia  : carpets  in,  69 
Dilke  carpet,  71 

Early  records  of  carpet-making,  68 
Kunstgewerbe  Museum  : Spanish  carpets  in,  69 
Lionel  Harris  carpets,  69,  69  (i) 

McLaren  carpet,  71,  112 
Spanish  and  Eastern  designs,  71 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  collection  of  Spanish 
carpets,  71,  112,  113 
Sparta  carpets,  150  ; price  of,  143 
Stieglitz  Museum  : Persian  verse-carpet  owned  by,  22 
Stockholm  : Royal  Palace  carpet,  32 
Stockholm  Museum  : Chinese  carpet  in,  63 
Sultanabad  carpets,  177 
Symbolism  in  carpet-design,  131-132 


Tabriz  carpets,  174,  183,  185  ; price  of,  143 
Talish  carpets,  167,  168,  169 
Tapestry  process  (Persian),  33-34 
Tcherkess  (or  Circassian)  rugs,  165 
Tchetcen  rugs,  164 
Technique  : 

Colour  and  dyeing,  118-122 

Dimensions  and  shape,  116— 118 

Group  characteristics  of  early  carpets,  99-114 

Knotting  and  weaving,  87-98 

Materials,  114-116 


Tekke  rugs,  188,  190 
Tientsin  carpet,  66 
Tiflis  rugs,  165 
Transylvanian  carpets,  51 
Treatment  of  carpets,  145-148 
Turcoman  saddle-bag  carpets,  191 
Turcoman  tribes  ; carpet-making  by,  61 
Turkestan,  Western  : carpet-making  in,  designs,  etc., 
186,  187.  See  also  Chinese  Turkestan 
Turkey  : 

Anatolian  carpets.  See  that  name 
Bergama  rugs,  155,  159 
Bode  comments  on  carpet,  46 
Factory  carpet  work,  149-151 
Historical  records  of  carpet-making,  43 
Home  Industry  carpets,  151-161 
Jakshibehdir  prayer-carpet,  159 
Kir-Shehr  rugs,  155,  158 
Kis  carpets,  156 

Konia  : Oriental  carpets  discovered  in,  by  Dr.  F.  R. 

Martin,  6,  45 
Konia  rugs,  155 

Kula  rugs  and  prayer-carpets,  55,  154,  157 

Ladik  rugs  and  prayer-carpets,  56,  154,  157,  158 

Makri  rugs  and  carpets,  155,  160 

Melas  rugs  and  carpets,  155,  160 

Mounsey  carpets,  48,  107,  108,  109 

Mujur  rugs,  154,  158 

Nigde  rugs,  155 

Prayer-carpets,  47,  53-56,  109,  152 
Smyrna  carpets.  See  that  name 
Turcoman  tribes  : carpet-making  by,  61 
“ Turkey-carpet  ” : origin  of  name,  etc.,  9,  44,  149 
Tuzla  rugs,  155 

Ushak  carpets,  48,  100,  149,  150 
Yuruk  carpets,  156,  161 

“ Turkey-carpet  ” : origin  of  name,  etc.,  9,  44,  149 
“ Turkey  work  ” : knotting  process,  79 
Tuzla  rugs,  155 
Tzitzi  rugs,  164 


Ushak  Turkish  carpets,  48,  100,  149,  150 


Verne  rugs,  165,  172 
Verses  inscribed  on  carpets,  21 

Verulam,  Lord  : early  English  carpet  owned  by,  78 


Washing  carpets,  146 
Washing  carpets  chemically,  139 
Whitty,  Thomas  : carpets  made  by  at  Axminster, 
in  1757,  81 

Wolsey,  Cardinal  : early  use  of  carpets  by,  76~j8 


Yezd  : carpet  industry,  29 
Yomud  rugs,  188,  191  ; price  of,  143,  144 
Yoraghan  (or  Gorevan)  carpets,  174,  183 
Yuruk  rugs,  156,  161 


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